Batı Anadolu 14. yüzyıl beylikler mimarisinde yapım teknikleri

Abstract

ÖZET İran üzerinden geçerek Batı Anadolu'ya yerleşen Türk boyların dan bir bölümü 13. yüzyıl sonlarında Batı Anadolu'ya yerleşip başlarındaki beylerin adları ile anılan Beylikler kurmuşlardır. İran ve Anadolu'dan geçişleri sırasında anıtsal bir İslam Mimarisi ile karşılaşan, yerleştikleri topraklarda da gelişmiş, zengin mimari gelenekler bulan Türkler yapılarında, bu iki farklı kültüre ait yapım tekniklerini bazen doğrudan, bazen birleştirerek bir arada uygulamışlar, giderek yeni biçimler ve öğeler geliştirmişlerdir. Beylikler Devri Mimarisi olarak da anılan bu devir mimarisi, gelişme sürecini 16. yüz yılda tamamlayan Klasik Osmanlı Mimarisi 'nin de kaynaklarından birini oluşturmaktadır. Bu nedenle Klasik Osmanlı Mimarisi 'nin oluşumunu anlamak ve kimliğini tanımlamak için 14. yüzyıl Batı Anadolu Beylikler Mimarisi 'nin -Menteşeoğulları, Aydınoğulları, Sarubanoğulları, Germiyanoğulları ve Karasioğulları Beylikleri incelenmesi ve tanımlanması bir zorunluluktur. I. Bölümde 14. yüzyıl Batı Anadolu Beylikleri Mimarisi 'nin Anadolu Türk Mimarlığı Tarihi içindeki yeri vurgulanarak, bu mimariyi geliştiren toplumun siyasi, ekonomik ve sosyal yaşamı mevcut belgeler çerçevesinde ele alınmıştır. Çalışmanın II. Bölümünde Türkler 'den önce Batı Anadolu'daki uygarlıklar ve tarihi süreç içinde geliştirdikleri mimarlık ve yapım teknikleri bir karşılaştırmaya olanak sağlamak amacıyla incelenmiştir. III. Bölümde mimari eserlerin kimlik kazanmasında önemli yeri olan yapı öğelerinden duvar, sütun, sütunbaşlığı, ayak, kemer, örtüye geçiş elemanları ve örtü, Türkler 'den önce Batı Anadolu'da, Beylikler devri yapılarında ve İran Selçuklu ve Anadolu Selçuklu yapılarında benzer özellikler gösteren öğelerde kullanılan malzeme, yapım teknikleri, kullanım yeri ve bezeme özellikleri incelenmiştir. IV. Bölümde incelenen yapım tekniklerinin Beylikler içinde bölgesel dağılımı ve nedenleri irdelenerek ele alınmaktadır. Bu de virde yaygın bir uygulama olan eski yapı öğelerinin kullanımı V. Bölümde incelenmiştir. Beylikler yapılarında görülen devşirme malzemenin yapıda özgün işlevine uygun ya da gelişigüzel kullanımına da özellikle değinilmiştir. VI. Bölümde Batı Anadolu Beylikler Mimarisi'nde, eşzamanlı İran Selçuklu ye Anadolu Selçuklu Mimarileri 'yle koşut olan yapım teknikleri ve bezeme öğeleri belirlenmiş ve kaynağı Doğu kültüründe olmakla birlikte, Batı Anadolu'da yeni bir anlayışla ele alman öğelere ve kompozisyonlara değinilmiştir. Sonuç Bölümünde ise Batı Anadolu Beylikler Mimarisi 'nin oluşumunda etkileri görülen yerel ve Doğulu (İran ve Anadolu Selçuklu) yapım geleneklerinden doğrudan alınan unsurlar, her iki yapım geleneğinin birleştirilerek uygulandığı öğeler ve Batı Anadolu Beylikleri Mimarisi 'nde varılan sentezlerin niteliği tartışılmıştır.

SUMMARY CONSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES IN THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY WEST ANATOLIAN PRINCIPALITIES Independent principalities were established after the decline of the Anatolian Seljuk rule in Anatolia towards the end of the thirteenth century. The half-nomadic Turkish tribes that migrated from Central Asia through Iran and Anatolia during this period were moved to the west by the Anatolian Principalities and established their own governments named after their leaders at the West Anatolia. The architectural character of the period, usually grouped in four main regions, shows different properties depending on the political connections of the region and the local architectural traditions. Indicated regions are East Anatolia, Southeast Anatolia, Middle Anatolia and West Anatolia. The architecture of the first three regions show somewhat a continuity of the Anatolian Seljuk style, but the architecture in West Anatolia went through a new creative process with some outstanding break throughs which led to the Classic Ottoman Architecture. Thus, a through study of the fourteenth century West Anatolian Architecture constitutes one of the basic components in the understanding of the genesis of the Ottoman Architecture. The new creative tendencies are seen in the buildings of the principalities of Menteşe, Aydxn, Saruhan, Germiyan, Karasi and that of the Ottomans. In this study, we survey the architecture of the five principalities in West Anatolia that settled in a region where the local building traditions differ from that of the Ottomans. In Chapter I a brief information based on the limited documents of the period is given on the institutional organization, economic and social life and military endevours of the principalities in order to compr-ehend the historical environment and point out the possible sources of influence in the development of the regional forms. The Turks found a local architectural tradition in West Anatolia which had developed through Millenia. So, a concise outline of the ancient cultures of the region beginning with the Archaic period and its gradual development in the consecutive architectural styles through the ages is presented in Chapter II. Starting with the Roman period, the architectural traditions show local viitendencies mostly based on the Hellenistic Architecture. West Anatolian Roman. Architecture differs from that of Italy of the period and later the Byzantine Architecture in the region differs from that of Constantinople and its vicinity by being closer to the local Roman style. Thus, some structural elements such as arch, vault, dome and characteristic wall constructions that prolonged until the Turkish period were all introduced. In Chapter III the materials, constructional techniques and decoration of the main building elements such as walls, columns, pillars, capitals, arches, transition zones and roofing, all those features that determine the identity of the architectural styles are surveyed, discussed and evaluated in the architecture of Western Anatolia before and in the fourteenth century. The study is based mainly on the existing buildings, in some cases, for the earlier periods, on the excavation reports and also includes the buildings that were built during the short Ottoman rule in the last quarter of the century since they have the local architectural characteristics. When traits of the Iranian and Anatolian Seljuk styles are found in the Turkish period, they are also discussed in the related sections. Wall Construction Ashlar masonary with a rubble stone and mortar infill core, rubble stone masonary and although not widely used by the Turks, the alternating bands of brick and stone wall construction are the local techniques used in the region before and in the Turkish period. The decorative bands on the wall construction, a characteristic of the Byzantine Architecture, were not common in the Turkish buildings, but the few examples such as the ones at Karacasu Hafsa Sultan Tomb and Manisa Revak Sultan Tomb are the imitations of the Byzantine forms. Columns, Pillars Columns were used as the main supporting system in the region in the earlier cultures. In the Turkish period a tendency in using columns instead of pillars is observed. Most of the columns that were used are spolien material. They were used, in the same building, with or without a base or consists of drums in order to obtain the apropriate hight. In a few buildings, pillars constructed in the same technique with the wall, were used as the supporting system. viiiCapitals i In the earlier periods, especially in the Hellenistic and Roman Architecture definite capital styles were applied in the region. But in the fourteenth century buildings, as in the case of the columns, most of the capitals were spolien capitals. Different capital orders were used in the same building without accomplishing a stylistic unity. We also meet the early examples of the Turkish muqarnas capitals in Manisa Ulu Camisi, Selçuk İsa Bey and Balat İlyas Bey mosques. Arch Construction In the local architecture of the West Anatolia semicircular arches were constructed of fine worked stones or rubble stones. With the Byzantine Architecture single and double brick work arches with thick fuga construction were introduced in the region. However, the Turkish arches differ from that of the local tradition by its pointed form and fine fuga construction. The arch construction of the Turkish period is seen as fine worked stone ( in some buildings with alternating colors), rubble stone, brick, alternating brick and stone voussoirs. Although the pointed arch was the main form and used especially for the large spans other farms such- as -flat, `semicircular `and*` `ogee- arches were also used. Profiles or tooth-saw frieze on the extrados, rosettes on the voussoirs are the kinds of decoration applied on the arches. Transition Zones The earliest examples of the transition zones existing in the region, although few in number, are from the Roman period. In these buildings the wall construction at the corners were rounded and a primative pendentive was formed that has the same radius as the dome. The Byzantine pendentive had a differnt radius than the dome and was the main transition element with its thick fuga construction. Different transition elements were used in the Anatolian Seljuk Architecture. They are squinches, pendentives and plane triangular elements. Various transitional elements were also used in the Western Turkish Architecture such as pendentives, squinches, plane triangles, Turkish triangular belt and some unique forms. The Turkish triangular belt with its thick fuga brick work construction shows a gradual development. In the first half of the century it was constructed with plane triangles and towards the middle of the century prizmatic elements came into use. The unique transition elements could be roughly classified as the variations of squinches, plane triangles and round planes. In some of the buildings of Menteşe hollow tubes or vases were used in the construction of the transition element to ixdecrease the weight of the structure. In general the transition elements were without decoration, but especially in the baths they were decorated with stucco muqarnases. Roofing Dome and vault roofing came into use in the region during the Roman period.. In general, the Roman vaults and domes were constructed of stone and the Byzantine ones in brick. The anchor holes on the walls indicate that the Roman barrel vaults were constructed on a wooden shuttering giving the form of the vault. The similar arrangement of the bricks of the vault forming squares placed one inside the other in the Early Byzantine building at Nysa (Sultanhisar) is seen at the middle vault of the last prayer hall of Behramkale Hiidavendigar Mosque. This form was derived from the roof construction of stone beams placed on top of each other, crossing over diagonally from the mid-points of the lower ones as found at the Belevi and Milas Gümüşkesen Mausoleums. The latter construction was used at the Milas Firuz Bey Mosque and Birgi Sultan Şah Tomb in the fourteenth century. A characteristic construction of the Anatolian Seljuk Architecture, barrel vaults with supporting arches had been applied in the buildings of Menteşe. More specific regional techniques such as the use of rubble stone wall construction in Menteşe region, the use of pillars in Menteşe, Germiyan and Karasi and columns in Aydm and Saruhan regions, the use of stone arches in Aydxn (Birgi), Karasi, Germiyan and Menteşe and brick arches in Aydm (Tire) and Saruhan regions, the use of supporting arches at rubble stone vaults and hollow tube construction at the transition zones in the Menteşe region are presented in the Fourth Chapter. The use of spolien material, a characteristic of the period, is examined in Chapter V. Spolien material had been mostly used in the wall construction. But columns, capitals, window and door frames were also been taken from the ruins of the earlier cultures and re-used for the same functions. In Chapter VI, building techniques and decorative forms which follow the Seljuk forms in Iran or Anatolia are pointed out. This Eastern influence is seen in the arches, elements of roofing, transition zones and especially in the decoration as the use of enameled tiles, faience, muqarnas and stucco carvings.In the concluding chaper,the distinct characteristics of the fourteenth century West Anatolian Architecture is discussed. Based on the historical events and the technical data from the existing buildings, it is possible to classify the architectural practice of the period in four groups. In the first group we witness the use of the local architectural traditions. In the second, Eastern traditions were used without any interpretations. The synthetic approach in which Eastern and local traditions were combined or handled in a new way resulting in new forms that are neither local nor Oriental makes up the third group. In the final group we see that new forms -in building elements and decoration- were created. In the last two tendencies, rather pragmatic character of the period and the synthetism of the building art is apparent. The direct use of the local techniques were mainly in the wall construction, use of columns and roofing, where as the Eastern techniques were applied on the arches and decoration. The outstanding new developments are seen as the tendency of using dome as a roofing element and Turkish triangular belt at the transition zone, which were developed in parallel with the Early Ottoman Architecture. We also meet the first examples of the muqarnas capitals with a quite complex geometry and ogee arches in Balat İlyas Bey Mosque which was.widely used in the same manner later in the Ottoman Architecture. The elements that were practiced in the period such as double drum (one on top of the other) and some unique transition elements were not carried on in the later periods but left as the examples of the experimental approach of the period. xi