dc.description.abstract | Space propulsion systems which are used for the maneuvers of spacecraft in space corresponding to their mission requirements have been researched and developed since the 1960s. Resistojets and arcjets have more commonly been studied as electrothermal systems. Although they have been used on numerous space platforms and still are considered preferable, they have some inherent limitations. Thus, the cathode erosion problem of arcjets and thermal endurance limit of the heater element in resistojets led scientists to search for alternative electrothermal propulsion systems. Microwave electrothermal thruster (MET) is one of the proposed concepts put forward as a result of such a search. MET concept is expected to eliminate the handicaps of arcjets and resistojets using a free floating plasma instead of a resistant heater or electric arc produced using electrodes. By this concept, it is considered that limiting factors are reduced to only one which is the wall temperature endurance as in all thrusters. The wall temperature endurance concerns are also reduced by cooling the walls with the propellant gas.Since it was first proposed by researchers at Michigan State University, researchers at PennState University and elsewhere conducted research on prototypes that operate at different frequencies and power levels. Although the MET concept has not yet been used on any space platform, the trends of miniaturizing satellites steer scientist into developing smaller and more compact MET systems by employing higher microwave frequencies.A MET system uses a free floating plasma produced by microwave radiation. Propellant gas is heated as it swirls around this free floating plasma. Thus the plasma can be thought of as a free floating heater element. To produce thrust, usually a conventional converging-diverging nozzle is used. When the gas passes through the nozzle, the thermal energy of the gas is transformed into the kinetic energy and the gas expelled at high velocities, producing thrust.In a MET system, plasma is generated in a resonant cavity which is one of the main parts of the system. A resonant cavity is a structure in which an electromagnetic radiation create a standing wave as all surfaces are closed by conductor boundaries. When the standing wave resonates back and forth inside the cavity, free electrons in the propellant gas are coupled to the electric field of the electromagnetic wave. Coupled free electrons will be accelerated due to the Lorentz force. These energized electrons will interact with neutrals. If the electrons make elastic collisions they would only impart momentum to their collision partner, and no change will occur in their electronic structure. On the other hand, if the electrons have enough energy for an ionization process to take place, an electron will be stripped off from the neutral atom. As a result of these processes, new free electrons and ions will be generated, initiating the formation of a plasma. Plasma will absorbs some amount of the energy of the microwave beam depending on its conductivity, and thus the plasma will act as a resistive load. Propellant gas will be heated when interacting with the plasma.Other main parts of a MET system are the nozzle, separation plate, the microwave coupling probe (antenna). Nozzle is generally attached at one of the ends of the cavity on a nozzle plate. Separation plate is made of dielectric material and used for separating the antenna zone of the cavity from the plasma zone to protect antenna from the plasma damage. The antenna is designed based on the operating frequency. Generally an antenna with a length of one quarter of the wavelength is used to provide maximum radiation. In this thesis, a microwave electrothermal thruster is designed and manufactured. To understand the system performance experimental and numerical studies are conducted; (i) 2-D axisymmetric electromagnetic model is developed using COMSOL Multiphysics software to model the electric field distribution in the designed cavity and understand the effect of antenna length and the cavity length on power deposition in the cavity. (ii) Experimental study is conducted and the system performance parameters (thrust, Isp and efficiencies) are derived using measured chamber pressure for cold and hot gas flow conditions. (iii) 0-D model is developed to compute the plasma parameters (electron number density, electron temperature, heavy particle temperature) and system performance parameters (thrust, specific impulse etc.). Experimental and numerical research conducted on MET systems indicate that a microwave cavity working at TM_011 mode is best fitted for MET systems. For the TM_011 mode, the electric field intensity reaches its peak value at two very ends of the cavity and this formation pattern is the best for reducing the thermal losses to the walls. In this mode of operation, the plasma will form at the locations where the electric field reaches its maximum, and the gas will interact with the plasma and be expelled right after it is heated, thus reducing thermal losses.BUSTLab MET cavity dimensions are calculated for operating at 2.45 $GHz$ and TM_011 mode. The results of 2-D electromagnetic model shows that the electric field intensity is maximum in the very ends of designed cavity. The dielectric separation plate and the antenna length has a negative effect on the reflection, namely, using these two components increase the reflections of electromagnetic wave from the cavity resonator. Also, it is computed that the power deposition increases with decreasing cavity length when there is a plasma in the cavity. In addition, to understand the cavity length, some other calculations are done to evaluate the optimum antenna length for the system. It is calculated that the optimum antenna length is not the quarter wave length for all plasma conditions. Since the medium conductivity and permittivity changes with the varying number density, the optimum antenna length changes In the experimental study, BUSTLab MET prototype was designed for 2.45 GHz microwave frequency and power levels of up to 1200 W. The microwave frequency of 2.45 GHz is chosen due to the availability and low cost of power supplies and other components for this frequency. The BUSTLab MET thruster, consists of resonant cavity, quartz separation plate, nozzle and antenna. The resonant cavity has an inner diameter of 100 mm and a length of 175 mm. These dimensions are chosen for operating in $TM_{011}$ mode at 2.45 GHz frequency as mentioned above. Thruster body is made of stainless steel. Two gas connection holes; one for feeding the gas and the other for pressure measurements are machined on two sides of the cavity. An observation window of 50 mm diameter located on the wall on the plasma zone side of the cavity allows the visual observation of the plasma conditions. A perforated metallic shield is attached on the inner side of observation window to prevent microwave leakage. A converging-diverging nozzle is placed at one side of the resonant cavity. The nozzle is designed to be modular for examining the system characteristics for various nozzle geometries and expansion ratios.The experimental setup consists of the microwave electrothermal thruster, a microwave generator, microwave transmission system, gas feeding system, measurement systems and vacuum system. For the tests, the MET thruster is attached to one of the ISO-320 ports of the BUSTLab vacuum chamber with specially designed flange and clamps. A Richardson power supply, SM745, and a 1.2 kW Richardson magnetron head, MH1.2W-S, are used as the microwave generator. Microwave generation system enables to set power level at 12 W increments. The microwave transmission system that transfers the microwave energy into the cavity is composed of an isolator, a coupler and a waveguide to coax adaptor. Muegge MW1003A-210EC isolator is used to protect the magnetron head from the reflected power damage. The isolator can protect the system up to 3 kW of reflections. In a MET system reflections can be reduced and the power coupling be increased by employing a tuning system. An Astex D13604 two stub tuner is used to tune the system. In order to increase the systems flexibility, transition from waveguide to a coaxial cable is done by a Muegge MW5002A - 260Y D adaptor. The coaxial cable used in the experiments is capable of transmitting 2.8 kW power at 2.45 $GHz$ with 0.04 dBm attenuation. The coaxial cable is connected to the transition by a 7/16 connector. The other end of the coax cable is attached to the antenna of the thruster via another 7/16 connector. In order to measure the delivered and reflected power levels two Booton 52012 power sensors are used. Performance characteristics of BUSTLab MET system, designed to operate 2.45 $GHz$ frequency, are examined using experimental data for 400 W and 500 W operating power levels. In the experiments, chamber pressure and power absorbed by the thruster are directly measured, and the chamber temperature, specific impulse, and the thrust are evaluated by using appropriate equations. Maximum Isp level of 347 s and thrust level of 266 mN are assessed. The evaluated Isp values corresponding to the specified power levels are in the range of resistojet thrusters' Isp levels. It is also observed that increasing power levels has apositive effect on performance characteristics. It should be noted that the evaluated values will deviate from the real values because of the ideal expanded nozzle assumption.In addition to experimental study, a global model has been developed for the analysis of the energy transfer mechanisms of a MET system that operates at 2.45 GHz frequency with a delivered power of 1200 W. The model determines the electron density, electron temperature and heavy particle temperature inside the resonant cavity for different propellant mass flow rates. In addition to plasma properties, specific impulse and thrust values of MET are also evaluated. Helium is chosen as a propellant in the study. Calculations are performed for mass flow rates of 60 to 165 mg/s. Two-fluid approach is used to calculate plasma parameters. For the calculation of the energy transfer from the plasma to the propellant gas, the plasma is assumed as a rigid sphere. In the developed model energy transfer mechanisms after the steady state discharge is achieved have been studied, hence breakdown and plasma formation processes have not been considered. In the steady state operation, there are three stages of energy transfer as mentioned earlier: (i) microwave energy is transferred to the plasma by collisions, (ii) the plasma heats the surrounding gas, (iii) the thermal energy of the gas is transformed into the kinetic energy by a conventional nozzle.Only the plasma zone of the cavity is modeled. Plasma zone is divided into two sub- zones which are background gas and plasma volume. Background gas represents the neutral gas that flows around the plasma. Plasma volume is the region where the charged species exist.In the model, conduction and convection heat transfer from the plasma to the gas are taken into account, whereas the radiation heat transfer is neglected. Since the plasma is formed very close to the nozzle and hot gas is expelled right after it is heated, at steady state the energy losses to the cavity walls are neglected. The model assumes quasineutral plasma with a Maxwellian energy distribution for the electrons. Although in experiments, it is observed that the plasma volume takes a tear-drop shape, in the model, the plasma volume is assumed to have a spherical shape with its properties changing only radially.Momentum exchange between the electrons and heavy particles is inversely proportional to their mass. Heavy ions cannot accelerate as easily as electrons, so the temperature difference between the plasma species occurs. Thus, species temperatures show variations depending on their mass. Equations for each species are adopted separately in the model: one for electrons and one for heavy particles (ions and neutrals)Relevant equations are solved using COMSOL Multiphysic 0-D module. Electron temperature, heavy species temperature, and electron number density are computed. The calculation results are compared with the experimental data of Diamant et al. The results are in good agreement with experimental data and trends in the literature. The developed model is also used to predict the plasma and performance parameters of the prototype MET system developed at BUSTLab. Electron temperature and plasma density of the BUSTLab thruster are computed to be about 1 eV and 10^19 #/m^3 respectively. Obtained results show that there is an optimum mass flow rate for which the specific impulse reaches a maximum value of 450 s for a delivered power of 1200 W. | en_US |