Çok uluslu işletmelerde yönetim ve organizasyon modelleri

Abstract

ÖZET Bu çalışmanın amacı, organizasyon ve yönetim modelleri ile ilgili genel teorik bilgiler verdikten sonra, Türkiye'deki çok uluslu şirketlerle yapılan görüşmelere dayanarak, çok uluslu işletmelerde ne tür yönetim ve organizasyon modelleri ve yapılarının uygu landığını, teorinin uygulamaya nasıl geçirildiğini incelemektir. Eski dönemlerden beri insanlar, tek başlarına başaramadıkları işlerde, gruplar meydana getirerek örgütlenmişler, hem yalnız yapamayacakları işleri ger çekleştirmişler, hem de zaman ve emekten tasarruf sağlamışlardır. E Bu dönemlerden itibaren hayatımızın ayrılmaz bir parçası olan organizasyon kavramı, zamanla gelişmiş ve karmaşık yapılar ortaya çıkmıştır. Teknik gelişme, ekonomik ve sosyal şartlardaki değişiklikler sonucu insanlar daha gelişmiş organizasyon türlerine ihtiyaç duymuşlardır. Bunun sonucunda da, organizasyonlar önemli bir inceleme konusu haline gelmişlerdir. 1800* lerin sonlarından itibaren verimlilik, üre tim gibi kavramlar önem kazanmaya başlayınca, organizasyonlarla ilgili ilk çalışmalar bu yolda olmuştur. En yüksek düzeyde verimlilik, üstün üretim becerisi sağlayan görüşler ortaya çıkmıştır. Klasik teori olarak isimlendirilen bu yaklaşımda işbölümü, kesin hiyerarşi, iş standartlaştırmaya önem verilmiştir. Amaç, gaye ve hedeflere kısa sürede ulaşmayı sağlayacak bir organizasyon kurmaktır. Organizasyonun etkin şekilde işlemesi, kontrol ve koordinasyon, bir takım prensiplere dayanmaktadır. İnsan, verimlilik sağlamada yararlanılacak diğer kaynaklardan farksızdır. 1920'lerden itibaren gelişmeye başlayan neoklasik teori ise, klasik teorinin ikinci plana attığı insan unsuruna önem vermiştir. Neoklasik teoriye paralel olarak ortaya çıkan diğer bir teori de modern organi zasyon teorisidir. Araştırmaya dayanan modern görüş yaklaşımlarında çevresel faktörler önem kazanmaktadır. Hızla ilerleyen teknoloji ve artan rekabet koşulları, yeni pazarlara açılmayı gerektirmektedir. Ancak bu yeni ortamlarda başarı sağlamanın en başta ?elen şartı, yeni koşullara uyum gösterebilecek, merkez le bağlantıyı kesiksiz olarak sağlayabilecek ve farklı özelliklere sahip çalışanların ihtiyaçlarına karşılık verebilecek organizasyon ve yönetim modellerinin uygulanmasıdır. - viii -

SUMMARY ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT MODELS IN MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES Progress of technology. increase of competition conditions cause to firms to look for new markets in foreign countries. But, for being successful in the new entered market, it is a necessity to establish manage ment and organization models which are appropriate to the conditions of this market. Also organization and management models and ap- Croximations change because of developing and modifying echno logic, economic and social conditions and they renew themselves. According to the open system view that overlook the organizations since the appearance of modern approximations, organization must obtain and acquaint information and adapt to the change. Being successful of organization and management is only pos sible with a flexible and dynamic structure. Principles, methods and techniques which are put forward by classic and neoclassic theories are not a matter to loose their validity with the appearence of modern approximations. This principle can be accepted as the foundation of methods and techniques organiza tion theory. They form a starting and foundation for the opinions which came after themselves. Every new coming approximation completes defective part of the revious one and acquires a new dimension to the mat er. Today, it is benefited from the fundementals of all theories and approximations. These fundementals are brought to the most suitable situation according to the characteristics of existing environment, culture, ri vals, clients and legal and politic conditions. Any firm chooses the most suitable approximation according to its own body and structural characteristics and if it be necessary they bring it to a suitable situation with improvements. Organizations came to our date from the ancient ages with changes and this changes are also going on today. With the simplest expression, organization is the whole of the structures, rules and methods which is used for coordinating the activities of human group for achieving the aim. It is the properly coordination of physical devices for achieving the aim. In the most primitive societies, also in Egypt and China people came together and combined their ef fort for a common aim. With ensuring the cooperation, to direct people towards to required aim is the foundation of organiza tion. Organization being based on this principle, achieves the many and various needs at the top level. With this kind of organization, the works which will be done are separated into parts, every part is - ix -given to one person, it is prohibited to do same work by more people than one and the efforts of the people have been coordinated. Because of organizations gain importance, they have been analysed by different people at different times and places. But these opinions are not separated by certain lines, every opinion is having the quality to complete others. The purpose of all organizations theory and ap proximations are related with that they will be able to unite the factors which will form the organization for achieving the aims in the most effective manner. The first of organization theories is the Tradi tional Organization Theory. The traditional theory is in three parts as Scientific Management, Managerial Theory and Bureaucracy. These three parts came into being almost in the same time and they base on the similar hypotheses. In this three approximations which are put forward by Taylor, Fayol and Weber whole coope ration, certain hierarchy and standardization of work is included. The traditional theory based on the fundemental that they will reach their profit more quickly with a rational working. The costs will decrease by the selec tion and education of the people who can do the work which is separated into parts best and continious ly. To obtain performance and to control the working manner a strict control is need. Traditional theory chose the formal organization as the examination subject. It examined that how will profitability and activity increase with an open and certain determined organization structure. Duties of people in the organization and related relations orga nized according to rules and formal structure. Works are separated into parts and as a result of cooperation specialization increases. Activities what will be the authority and responsibility and every individual what and how will do, has been determined. Three approximations of traditional theory work hard at the control of organizations and handle the organization with close system comprehension. The relations with the environment is not taken into consi deration. Scientific Management approximation which is the first part of traditional organization theory is also known as Taylorizm. One of the basic hypothesis of Taylorizm is that it is possible to reach the profita bility by using scientific methods to solve problems. At scientific management, worked hard at the work not at the working person. Apart from Frederick W. Taylor, writers and researchers like Henry Laurance Gantt, Carl Barth, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, Harrington Emerson, Morris Cooke contributed to the development of scientific management approximation. Taylor, at the end of his workings. determined the principles of scientific management Tike these: - Methods and techniques which based on scienti fic method must be used at every kind of activity. - Selection and location of workers must be done - x -scientif ical ly. - A strict cooperation between worker and emplo yer must be established. - Management and responsibility allocation must be done. Scientific management handles the relations of a working people with his work. It examines human-machine relations. Managerial theory and bureaucracy based on the relations among people and organizational structure and relation at upper levels. Scientific management appro ximation find a facility to push the concepts like discipline, rationalism, neutrality into the applica tion field and it searched for finding the ways of decreasing the effects of to doing work by guessing, approximate calculation and personality factors. And by the mean, time it is criticised because it consi dered the human egual to the other production factors. The second of traditional organization theories is managerial theory. People who contributed to mana- erial theory searched for the ways of achieving the deal management. Fayol who provide the most important assistances to managerial theory put forward principles which are related with organization. He mentioned the benefits which are provided by organization diagrams, and said that it is important to select workers by profession education and rationalist methods. Fayol, separated the activities related with management into functional elements like planning, organizing, ordering, commanding coordination and con trol. Bureaucracy which is the third approximation is a normative model which is based on organization structure. It has been brought by the writers like Max Weber in early and later Marton, Selznick Gouldner. Bureaucracy accepts the concepts like rationa lism, specialization, certainty. It allows to specia lize a person on the subject that he is an expert. Works are separated into smal 1 parts according to their specialization fields. According to Weber, bureaucracy has five impor tant characteristics. The first one of these is the cooperation with every person specialize on the subject that belongs to him. Also the most inexperienced wor ker acquire a specialization. The second characteristic is the collection of authority at the center. Every superior rank have an increasing control facility. There is a perpendicular hierarchy. Another characteristic is related with personnel selection. While the personnel is being chosen the people who have the qualities to achieve the work selected. Objective tests are applied. At the personnel selection factors like relationships, race, sex have no role. The important thing is education, knowledge level and the characteristics that he had. And salary is determined according to th capablities. - xi -The last characteristic is the determination of rule, principle and politics clearly. Systematic and detailed reports are made. Bureaucracy model which based on these fundamen tals according to Weber is very rational. Also bureaucracy is a closed system like the other parts of traditional management theory. It does not take in consideration the factors except organization. As it is understood, traditional theory approxi mations essentially based on the rationalism and factor directions of organizations. The control of the orga nization is the main purpose. Relations of the organi zation with its environment is not taken into conside ration. All activity, principle and rules related with management and organization has been determined. The second of organization theories is neoclassic theory or with its other name the human relations act theory. Hawthorne experiments which are made under the leadership of Elton Mayo considered as the beginning of human relations act theory. With the experiments which are carried out by Mayo and his friends, the result that the informal relations at the work place are effective on person's conducts is provided. The main opinions that the neoclassical theory put forward about the structure of organization can be summarized like these. Considering the human build important can damage the most perfect vote plans operation in the application. In the human relations aims are devoted to person. Group component and helping is important. Formal information decreases. It is benefited from groups to decide. There is a compressed structure which encourage contractor and to participation of group to decide. Whereas the human relations model is based on the feelings of the human and working groups, relations with formal organization and environment are neglected. If we set up in order the opinions belonging to human relations, Douglas McGegor's X and Y theories co me first. McGregor effected from the Dr. Mayo' s wor kings. At first he entered to the traditional manage ment theory's description which Taylor and Fayo 1 deve loped and called this X theory. After, he criticised this theory violently and put forward the principles of human relations theory's which he named Y theory. According to McGregor the hypotheses of X theory are these: - People prefer to be commanded, avode from responsibility and are not desirous. - Average person is selfish, he prefers his own purposes to organization ones and because of this reason he must be controlled. - Because of his nature, person does not like newness, insist on this kind of events. - Average people have very little creativity ability at the solution of the organizational problems. - xii -McGregor determined classics like these and then criticised them. Because classic theory sees human as an existence that acts with technic principle and eco nomic motive with its hard logic. When the monotony added, creative power of individual, enterprise desire is removed. Later McGregor summarized the hypotheses of Y theory 1 ike: - At work place, worker's spending physical and mental effort is natural as much as play or rest. Average human does not hate the work. - Strict control, penalty are not the only way that direct people to organizational purposes. People are tied to organization love their work and friends, uses the ways of managing or controlling himself. - People must be awarded who work for organizati onal purposes and be successful. - When the convenient conditions are provided, normal human does not stay with accepting the responsi bility, he also learns to search it. - Capabilities like imagination, mastery, crea- vity which are necessary for the solution of the prob lems are distributed among the people. So, McGregor put forward knowledge related with the human who have unknown relations until the time of McGregor and makes the importance of human relations. Another opinion is C.Argyris's maturation con cept. Motivation of the people by giving them promo tion and free authority using facility to play an important role for achieving the purposes is defended. However Rensis Likert said that the management systems are in a continuity which is extending 1 to 4. When the system approach is extending to 4 the profati- bility increases. Z theory is a concept which appeared in Japan and be deployed all around the world from here. It based on the fundementals like lifetime employing, decide commonly, not specialized professional development, common responsibility and totality. The third one of organization theories is the mo dern theory. The main characteristic of modern theory is that it has a structure that base on scientific fo undations. It is benefited from the researchs. Modern organization theory handles the organiza tion as a system. Whereas the system is a whole which is formed by the combination of the parts that are more than one. Also the organization is a whole which is formed from sub systems Tike marketing, finance, per sonnel and interact with the environment. Every sub systems contributes to whole. One of the important characteristics which sepa rates the modern theory from the other two theories is the consideration of the organization as an open dyna mic system. Organization takes inputs from its envi ronment like knowledge, energy, material and by proces sing them produces different productions or results. Modern theory essentialy seperates into two - xxii -? arts. System approximation and contingency approxima- ion. In social sciences contingency approximation be handled from the point of view of the dynamism of the social life. By system approximation â coordination and totality is established among the structures and duties in the organization, interaction and communication among the parts that form the whole is emphasized. Organization is examined as a system which is formed by elements that are relative with one another in itself. However contingency approximation based on the fundemental that every organization's management forms and systems are different because conditions that ef fect the organization and interior position of every organization is different. According to contingency approximation, organiza tions determine new strategies for adapting to enviro- mental changes with the effects of environmental chan ges, management systems can be collected in two groups. Mechanic management system and organic management sys tem. Mechanic management system is talked about for the organizations which work in accordance with the characteristics of traditional management system and under stable conditions. In mechanic system speciliza- tion is important. There are definitions which deter mine the authority and responsibility. Communication interaction and control is in perpendecular direction among organization members below and superior. Organic system is the system that is suitable for changing conditions. Adjustments are very frequently done at individual works, and works are defined again. Horizontal communication is used more. Communication is provided by information relation rather than re ports. Organizations aims are very important. This organization structure is the best structure for the organizations which faces the unexpected market and technological changes. Because organizations must not be fixed and present plans can be adjusted accor ding to the changing conditions. One of the organization structures which the contingency approximation arised is the matrix organi zation. At the matrix organization which is a two dimensional structure, one directional violent hierac- hic connections are removed. The essential of the matrix structure is that personnels who are under the authority of functional deparments also under the aut hority of a director who is having duty to complete the project, authority and responsibility shared out bet ween these two directors. At the multidimensional organizational structures organization takes the shape of cube or prism. Another management model is the management accor ding to purposes. Management according to the purposes is a kinci of management bring about the belows partici pation to determination of the purposes and decisions. The most important characteristic of management according to purposes is the determination of purposes for every person and unit. Personnel as many as pos sible to participate the determination of purposes. After determination of the purposes, the devices and - xiv -equipments which will be used o achieve these purposes are planned. Management gives positive results like suggestion of work as a team, making strong the cooperation and raising of satisfaction level. As a result of development modern management and organization idea and the techno logicy and economy firms apply management and organization models which are appropriate to their own conditions and structures. When we talk about multinational companies the subject becomes more complex. Multinational companies use organizational structures which are appropriate to their own activities. International companies are the companies which are in activity that concerns at least two countries. The elements which are source for international activi ties are raw material, capital, human power, technical skills that are sent from one country to another, law consultancy, banking are also the sources for interna tional activities. In last centuries, increase of world population rapidly, arise of big cities, specialization in econo mic field, development in communication, and transpor tation devices cause to increase of production. By renewal of machines and equippings the profitability of workers is increased. Because of rapid increase in competition, prices decreased, workers dischanged, sa laries decreased, demand decreased against increasing supply in interior market. In this case manufacturer firms research for at least keeping the demand to their products at a constant level and arised new techniques and methods. Package, brand and advertisement workings are started and products are changed. Companies are widened to foreign markets to sel 1 the excess of production which formed as a result of rapid development and gained an international structu re. For increasing their activity in these new markets they opened branches connected foundations and made licence contracts. Multinational firm can be in several activities like source, good and service, import, export and also production and marketing in foreign markets. The first of these activities is the direct import and export. It is possible to activate with ways like licence cont racts, contracted production in foreign countries with direct investments. A multinational company starts to international enterprises with foreign demand stage. Managers can think to sell their goods to foreign countries. A de- parment belonging to export can be opened with the increase of demand and a manager can be appointed to this department. More increase in the export, requires to establish outer selling branches for concerning about advanced levels, it requires to make production in foreign countries for applying more efficient catch ing on and distribution programs against rivals. There are three ways to start to product at outside: - contract based production - 1 içence contract - direct investment to production Organizational structures of international - xv -companies is different from those of companies operating in one country. According to the stages multinational company passed, pre-nations section stages, international section structure, global product section structure, global region structure, global functional structure and multi-dimensional global structure may be handled. The selection of the most comf ormable organizati onal structure to the global strategy of the company is a problem that top managers of the company should solve in an efficient and effective way. The companies gene rally change their structures and make a selection among various approach in order to integrate their geographically distant activities. Another situation that multinational company managers face is to provide the change of a structure which at the beginning was comformable to the global strategy, in order to make it conformable to the stra tegy of the company which has changed with time. All these stages are not the stages to follow respectively in order to become a multinational com- ?any. Some companies may start from the second or hird stages, or they may not reach the last stage. What is important is that parent company management should consider the company not only as the gathering of foreigner and native enterprises, but as a manage ment system having a totality. If the multinational company begins to see the whole world as its field of business and if it plans, organizes, executes and control, international activities from a general viewpoint, it starts to develop in being a multinational company. When a multinational enters new markets, it should apply a strategy to minimize the disagreements stemming from cultural differences. It should not ignore elements such as customs, belief, art, morals and traditions. Another matter that international companies sho uld take into consideration is about the global activi ties. The integration of internal and external uni ties, centrifugal authority to decide against central control, improvement of the directors who may see the problems and activities from an international view point, use of environmental information and worldwide resource distribution are among these activities. A multinational company is powerful if it has the ability to perceive new opportunities in any where in the world and the ability to profit from them, and the ability to respond, on time. to the global dangers threating the company. For this reason, in multinati onal companies control and inspection are very impor tant. The number of the multinational companies increases very quickly because of the fact that national markets' demands are limited against the increasing capacities with new technologies. All the countries are contented with these companies which frovides them the opportunity to prof it from modern echnologies. Moreover, one of the most important cause why these multinational companies enter new countries is that they want to profit from the cheaper labor and to reduce the costs. - xvi -Even then, to enter a foreigner market always is not so easy. Different countries nave different needs, cultures and laws. Each population has some differen ces. Therefore, the strategies that multinational companies should apply may be different in different countries. Turkey is one of the countries where multi national companies operate by means of direct invest ment or licence agreement and it is expected that their number will increase in a short time. - xvii -