15. ve 19. yüzyıllar arasında Osmanlı saray sanatı teşkilatı

Abstract

Osmanlı sarayı, başlangıcından son anına kadar, sanat ve zanaatın patronluğunu yapmıştır. Bir yandan çeşitli bölgelerden sanatçı ve zanaatçıları bünyesinde toplamış, diğer yandan yetenekli gördüklerinin, ustaların ellerinde yetişmelerini sağlamış ve sanatlarını en iyi şekilde icra etmeye teşvik etmiştir. Osmanlı sarayı, ihtiyacı olduğu sanat eserlerini iki yoldan sağlamıştır. Bunlardan birincisi, ehl-i hıref de denilen saraya bağlı çeşitli sanat ve zanaat alanlarından oluşan teşkilattır. Bu teşkilata bağlı sanatçılar hazinedar basına bağlı olup, değerli malzemelerle çalışmışlar ve ince isçilik gösteren eserleriyle padişaha hizmet vermişlerdir. Yine saray iç teşkilatı kapsamında, terziler, sanatkar ve zanaatkar saray kadınları ve imrahora bağlı sanatçı grupları vardır. Bunlardan terziler, hilat ve kaftanların dikimini üstlenmişler; saray kadınları ince yastık, yorgan ve örtü islemeleri, imrahor sanatçıları da padişahın koşum takımlarını yapmışlardır. Bu teşkilat sınırlı üretim verdiğinden, saray, çok yoğun miktarlarda ihtiyaç duyduğu sanat ürünlerini sarayın dışındaki devlet atölyelerinden, esnaf loncalarına bağlı imalathanelerden ve çini, seramik, dokuma gibi yalnız belirli bir alanda yoğun üretim veren iznik, Kütahya, Bursa, istanbul gibi merkezlerdeki atölyelerden sağlamıştır. Gerek sarayın içindeki ve gerek sarayın dışındaki isliklerde üretilen sanat eserlerinin modelleri ve desenleri saray nakkaşları ve nakkashanesi tarafından hazırlanmıştır. Bu şekilde imparatorluğun sınırları içinde üslup açısından fazla ayrılıklar göstermeyen bir sanat tarzı ortaya çıkmıştır. On altıncı yüzyılda Osmanlı sanatı doruk noktasına ulaşmıştır. En verimli çalıştığı dönem bu dönemdir. On yedinci yüzyıldaki ekonomik sıkıntılar altın, gümüş gibi değerli malzemelerin sağlanmasında zorluklar oluşturmuştur. Buna paralel olarak ehl-i hıref teşkilatında hem sanatçı sayısında, hem de üretim veren bölük sayısında azalmalar olmuştur. Takip eden dönemlerdeki batılılaşma ve sanayileşme hareketleri sanat anlayışında meydana getirdikleri değişiklikler sonucunda ehl-i hıref teşkilatı işlevini yitirmiş ve hemen hemen ortadan kalkmaya başlamıştır. Buna karsın endüstriyel metodlarla çalışan saraya bağlı fabrikalar kurulmuştur. Bu şekilde batı standarlarında rekabet ürünleri veren imalathaneleriyle, saray, kendi kontrolunda sanat üretme geleneğini sürdürmeye devam etmiştir. özetle söylenebilir ki, saray, on besi^ `üzyıldan son döneme kadar, kendi kontrolü altında sanat üretme geleneğini s ürd ürmüs t ur. xi

The concept of centralization in the Ottoman empire created a uniform type of art, and the Palace held the most significant role för the formation of this art. Initially in Bursa and Edirne, and after the fifteenth century in istanbul, it became the main sponsor of the arts. Besides traditional arts, ali works of art produced in the empire can be considered court art. While the artistic needs of the palace were often met by its own artists and craftsmen in the royal workshops, the palace also cooperated with guilds because they were not organized för maşs production. Therefore, when discussing the Ottoman court, there are two issue concerned: the organization within the palace and its relation with the various external sources. The internal organization comprised mainly royal artisans and craftsmen called the ehl-jl hıref. court tailors, women hired för embroidery work, and artisans and craftsmen of the royal stables. xiiThe ehl-i hıref which undertook ali the arts and crafts required by the palace and the state consisted of a number of societies of professions. These professions included çal ligraphers, painters, bookbinders, goldsmiths. jewelers. woodworkers, weavers, tai lörs, hatmakers, bootmakers, and unlikely occupations such as surgeons and vnrestlers. Each society> which can be evaluated as a school of arts and crafts, had a chîef called the bölük bası. a deputy chief called the kethüda, masters and apprentices called the sagird. The members of these societies were registered in payrolls drawn up four times a year by the chief treasurer, called the hazinedar bası. These documents show the daily wages paid to artists and craftsmen by the state. Of these payrolls, the öne dated from 932/1525 is very significant becau.se it contains additional information about the origins of the artists joined and the actual date of their entrance to the organization. Furthermore, advancement in rank was also recorded in these payrolls. Ali these artists acted according to the orders of the sultan and the dignitary. Moreover, they performed exceptional tasks such as making gifts for the sultan and presenting them during bayram (religious holiday) xiiilcelebrations. They vere awarded in cash and/or satin ör velvet kaftans (robes). Of the societies, that of the painters, called cemaat-i nakkasan. is the most significant.. it was responsible for decorating the manuscripts commissioned for the imperial libraries. The society also formulated designs used by other craftsmen. it is these motifs which brought about a uniform type of art within the empire. Although a number of workshops of painters was found in the Palace, their main headquarters was near the Arslanhane, a building that was located in the vicinity of Hagia Sophia. The corps of ehl-i hıref in istanbul were founded by Mehmed II, enlarged by Bayezid II, and supplemented by artists brought by Selim I and Süleyman I. in the record that dates from 932/1526 there are entries for över five hundred ninety artists, and in that of 974/1566 över six hundred thirty. The number increased to över eight hundred ninety in the payroll register of 983/1575. Information compiled from the available sources shows that in general each society of ehl-i hıref was organized in a similar fashion from the fifteenth century to the end of the eighteenth century. Only in the register drawn in 952/1545, the societies of painters and jewelers were xivseparated into two corps: the Rumiyan and Aceman. This separation endured until the reign of Ahmed III. The demography of the members of a society is a good indicator of its importance. The raost populous corps were that of jewelers, goldsmiths, painters, and weavers. Especially many artists of different ethnic origins were recruited to the empire after the campaigns of Selim I and Süleyman I, and gathered at the Ottoman court. Palace documents demonstrate that artists from Tabriz and Bosnia were the greatest in quantity. Documents also mention Albanian, Caucasian, Moldavian, Hungarian, and Georgian artists. Palace inventories reflect no relation between an area of profession and the ethnic background of the artist. Ali artisans from various parts of the empire were evaluated according to their qualifications and were either rejected ör employed. As mentioned previously, artisans and craftsmen of ehl-i hıref served only the sultan and the dignitary. Working on precious objects, they produced very intricate and distinctive handmade products. in addition to production, they had also a significant role in organizing procedures. For instance, they provided tile makers with XVthe designs formulated in the nakkaahane (design office) and helped workers fix these tiles on the wall of the edifice to be built for the sultan. Besides works of art produced in royal ateliers, the Palace also turned to external sources for raw material and mass production. Firmans and imperial orders reveal that it demanded tiles and ceramic vessels from kilns in Iznik and Kütahya, ordered silk, satin and velvet from weavers in Bursa and Istanbul, and bought glass from Venice and Bohemia. Being the most essential consumer and the controller, the palace helped Ottoman art improve for its own benefit. The last quarter of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth century were a turning point for the court art. First of all» the treasury of the empire became depleted, and secondly, the influence of westernization gave way to industrialization in artistic areas. With this period of change, the ehl-i hiref almost came to an end, and the Palace sought new solutions to its need for art. Glass and tile factories along the Bosphorus, the Hereke weaving factory and the Hereke weaving workshop in the Dolmabahçe palace, and finally the tile factory in the garden of the Yıldız palace, can be given as examples of these solutions. xv iWhile these enterprises, which gave production with new technology, competed with its counterparts in Europe, they also gave an opportunity to the Palace to retain some artistic movements under its supervision. To sum up, from the fifteenth century to the end of the empire, the palace held the artistic movements under its control. XVll