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dc.contributor.advisorÇataltaş, İhsan
dc.contributor.authorEvranuz, E.Özgül
dc.date.accessioned2021-05-08T09:11:20Z
dc.date.available2021-05-08T09:11:20Z
dc.date.submitted1985
dc.date.issued2021-03-08
dc.identifier.urihttps://acikbilim.yok.gov.tr/handle/20.500.12812/665218
dc.description.abstractÖZET Pektin saf laştırılmış karbonhidrat olup esas olarak, değişen oranlarda metoksil grubu bulunduran poligalaktüronik asit zincirinden oluşur. Pektin, kıvam verici, jel yapıcı, emül siyon yapıcı veya stabilizör olarak gıda sanayiinde yaygın ola rak kullanılır. İlaç sanayiinde ve bazı endüstriyel uygulamalar da, örneğin kâğıt ve tekstil sanayiilerinde de kullanım alanı vardır. Halen pektin başlıca reçel, jöle ve marmelat üretiminde kıvam verici olarak kullanılmaktadır. Pektin eldesinde başlıca hammadde kaynağı meyva suyu işr leme artıklarından olan elma posası ve portakal kabuklarıdır. Çekirdekleri alındıktan sonra tarlada bırakılan ayçiçeği tabla ları ve melas da bol miktarda pektin içermektedir. Yurdumuzda, halen, pektin dışalım yoluyla karşılanmakta dır. Pektin hammaddesi olarak ayçiçeği tablaları fazla miktarda ve toplu halde Trakya Bölgesinde bulunmaktadır. Çekirdekleri alındıktan sonra tarlada yakılan veya toprağa karıştırılan ya da hayvanlara yedirilen tablalardan pektin eldesiyle, bu artıklar değerlendirilecek, yurt ekonomisine katkıda bulunulacaktır. Ayçiçeği tablalarından, sınırlı ölçülerde pektin üretiminin, bazı Doğu Avrupa ülkelerinde yapıldığı bildirilmektedir (25, 28, 57, 58, 66, 71, 78). Literatürde bu konuda yapılmış pek çok araştırma vardır (42, 43, 45, 46, 71). Ancak, ayçiçeği tablala rından elde edilen pektinin miktarı ve kalitesi hammaddenin tü rüne, olgunluk derecesine ve ekstraksiyonda uygulanan koşullara göre değişir. Trakya'da ekimi yapılan ayçiçeği tohumu VNIIMK-8381 adıyla anılan bir türdür. Bu çalışmada, bu türün, olgun tabla ları, güneşte kurutulduktan sonra hammadde olarak kullanılmıştır. Projenin amacı, ayçiçeği tablalarından pektin eldesinde, pektin kalitesini etkileyen faktörlerin araştırılması ve konuyla ilgili teknolojik sorunların incelenmesidir. Ayçiçeği tablala rından pektin eldesinde, prosesin bilinçli bir şekilde deneti miyle, sağlıklı bir üretimin gerçekleştirilebileceği ve araştır ma sonuçlarının, işlenmiş gıda maddeleri üreten sanayiimizin sorunlarına ışık tutacağı kanısıyla bu ayrıntılı çalışma ele alınmıştır.-IV- Ticari pektinler, galaktüronik asit zincirindeki karbok- sil gruplarının esterleşme derecesine göre yüksek metoksilli (HM) ve düşük metoksilli (LM) pektinler olarak sınıflandırılır lar. Ayçiçeği pektini, doğal olarak bulunan düşük metroksilli pektindir. Ayçiçeği pek tininin, tablalardan en etkin bir şekilde % 0.5' lik okzaiat çözeltisi ile ekstre edilebildiği Bishop tarafından gösterilmiş (11), daha sonra bir çok araştırıcı denemelerini % 0.5' lik okzaiat çözeltisi ile gerçekleştirmişlerdir (45, 46, 47, 71, 73). Ancak, ekstraksiyon sıcaklığının ve süresinin pek tin kalitesine etkisinin yeterince incelenmemiş olduğu anlaşıl dığından bu çalışma ele alınmıştır. Denemelerde, 60 mesh tane iri liğinde öğütülen ayçiçeği tablaları katı: sıvı oranı 1: 20 ve 1: 25 olmak üzere 30, 60, 90, 120 dakika süre ile % 0.5'lik ok zaiat çözeltisi ile ekstre edilmiştir. Bu yolla elde edilen ekstraktlarda toplam pektik maddeler tayini yapılmış ve ekstrakt viskoziteleri ölçülmüştür. Daha sonra, yukarda anlatılan koşul larda, fakat 30, 60, 90 dakikalık ekstraksiyondan elde edilen ekstraktlardan, asitli alkol ve kalsiyum klorürle çöktürülebilen pektin miktarları incelenmiştir. Bu denemelerin elde edilen so nuçlara göre, 1) Ekstre edilebilen toplam pektik maddeler mik tarı, ekstraksiyonda kullanılan sıvı ve ekstraksiyon sıcaklığı arttıkça ve ekstraksiyon süresi uzadıkça, artmaktadır. 2) Ekst rakt viskozitesi ekstraksiyon süresi uzadıkça ve sıcaklık art tıkça düşmektedir, 3) lg örnekten elde edilen Ca C03 miktarı olarak hesaplanan kalsiyum klorürle çöktürülebilen pektin mik tarı 90°C'de 30 ve 60 dak. ekstraksiyonla elde edilen ekstrakt- ta en fazladır, 4) Ekstraksiyon süresi 60 dakikadan uzun olduğu zaman pektin verimi düşmektedir. Daha sonra, öngörülen ekstraksiyon koşullarında 40 g öğü tülmüş ayçiçeği tablası 100 mi % 0.5'lik okzaiat çözeltisi ile ekstre edilerek, kimyasal yapısı ve jel gücü tayini için pektin örnekleri elde edilmiştir. Bu örneklerin, esterleşme derecesi, amidasyon derecesi, roetoksil miktarı, serbest karboksil miktarı tayinleri yapılmış, molekül ağırlıkları saptanmıştır. Ayrıca bu örneklerle hazırlanan test jölelerinin % çökme değerleri ölçüle rek jel gücü hesaplanmıştır. Sonuçlar Tablo 3.6 ve 3.8 'de göste-_v- rilmiştir. Buna göre, 1) Ekstraksiyon sıcaklığına bağlı olarak, pektinlerin amidasyon derecesi değişmektedir. 7öC'öe ekstre edilen pektinlerde amidasyon derecesi % 1.6, 80°C'de % 20, 90°C'de % 15 civarında bulunmuştur, 2) Ekstraksiyon süresi ve sıcaklığı art tıkça, pektinlerin esterleşme derecesi ve metoksil miktarında düşüş gözlenmiştir, 3) Ekstraksiyon koşullarına bağlı olarak, pektinlerdeki serbest karboksil miktarı da değişmektedir, 4) 70 veya 90 C'de 30 veya 60 dak. süre ile ekstraksiyonla elde edilen pektin örneklerinin jel gücü oldukça iyi bulunmuştur, 5) Ekst raksiyon sıcaklığının ve süresinin molekül ağırlığı üzerine be lirli bir etkisi bulunamamıştır. Genel olarak, sabit sıcaklıkta, ekstraksiyon süresi uzadıkça molekül ağırlığı düşmektedir. Pektin eldesi sırasında, hammaddeye uygulanan işlemler, sırasıyla yıkama, ekstraksiyon, süzme, konsantrasyon, çöktürme, süzme, yıkama ve kurutmadır. Pektin üretim koşulları, ticari değeri olan pektinin, en ekonomik şekilde, en fazla üretimini sağlayacak şekilde seçilir. Bu nedenle ekstrakttaki pektin kon santrasyonu çok önemlidir. Proseste, ayrıca konsantrasyon iş lemine gerek kalmadan, doğrudan doğruya kullanılacak pektin ekstraktı elde etmek asıl amaçtır. Bu çalışmada, katı: Sıvı oranı 1:25 olacak şekilde yapılan ekstraksiyon işlemlerinden elde edi len ekstr aktın pektin konsantrasyonu, daha sonraki çöktürme iş lemi için yeterli bulunmuştur. Ekstrakt viskoz olduğu için, süz me işleminin etkinliği sıcaklıkla ve süzme basıncıyla değiş mektedir. Bu nedenle, bu çalışmada, pektin verimini etkileyen bir faktör olarak, ekstraktın değişik sıcaklıklarda ve basınç farklarında süzülmesi denemelerinin yapılması da gerekli görül müştür. Pektin ekstraktının süzülmesi sırasında, süzme hızı sı caklıkla artmaktadır. Süzme basıncı artırıldıkça, süzme hızı önce artmakta, sonra tekrar azalmaktadır. Kek direncinin basınçla hızla arttığı saptanmıştır. (Tablo 3.9). Filtre kekinin bastırı labilme faktörü 0.8 olarak hesaplanmış olup.oldukça yüksektir. Süzme yardımcı maddesi olarak, ekstrakta öğütülmüş ayçiçeği tohum ları kabukları ilave edilmiş ve % 0.15 oranında kullanıldığı za man süzme hızını en fazla artırdığı saptanmıştır. Son olarak, önerilen prosesin akım şeması çizilmiş (Şekil 4.1 ) ve filtre tasarımı yapılmıştır.
dc.description.abstractSUMMARY THE FACTORS EFFECTING THE QUALITY OF PECTIN IN THE PRODUCTION OF SUNFLOWER HEAD PECTIN AND THE EVALUATION OF THE RELATED TECHNOLOGICAL PROBLEMS Pectin i a a purified carbohydrate product with a high molecular weight. It consists mainly of partially methoxylated polygalacturonic acids. Commercial pectins are carefully standardized products. Their major use is in the manufacture of jellies, jams, marme lades, etc. The two most important sources of pectin are citrus wastes and apple pomace. Sugar beet and sunflower pectin are produced to a limited extent in some countries, particularly in Eastern Europe (25, 28, 57, 58, 66, 71, 78). The pectin requirement of Turkey is met through imports, mostly from European countries. The yearly average importation of pectin, from 1977 to 1981, has been about 13 tons. The world production of pectin amounts to about 10.000 tons, on the average, between 1970 and 1980 (15). The low level of pectin consumption in Turkey is mainly due to the lack of information about the condidions of application of a particular type of pectin to a particular type of product. In Turkey, sunflower cultivation is done mainly for the production of oil and the yearly production is in the order of 550.000 tons (Table 1.1). Sunflower cultivation is done mainly in the Trakya region of Turkey. The seeds cultivated are named as VNIIMK-8931 (4,18,82). Mature sunflower heads without seeds are considered as waste which is a good source of pectin. Presently, the sunflower heads as such are either burnt as a fuel or left on the field to mix to the soil or fed to the animals. There are numerous investigations about the possibility of production of pectin from sunflower heads on a commercial basis (42,43»45,46,71). However, the quality and the quantity of the pectin extracted depends on the variety and the maturity of the heads and on the extraction conditions employed.-VII- Furthermore, it is possible to obtain s pectin of desired quality by altering the extraction conditions. For these reasons, it Is found necessary to investigate the factors effecting tke quality of pectin, during extraction of sunflower heads with 0.5 # oxalate solution at various time and temperature conditions. She related technological problems were also evaluated. The pectins of commerce are carefully standardized products. Pectins are classified according to the degree of esterlficatlon of the carboxyl groups of the ga lac t uremic acid chain. High methoxyl (HM) pectins have over 50 % esterif ied oarboxyl groups, i.e. the degree of esterif ication (DB) is above 50 #. Such an ester level corresponds with a methoxyl content (MeO) of 6-7 #. High ester pectins gel in the presence of relatively high sugar concentration (60-65 $) at a pfi of about 3.0. 2he degree of esterification strongly influences the time and temperature relationships required for gelation. So, high methoxyl pectins are classified according to the setting time of the gel as rapid-set or slow-set. Rapid set pectins have higher DE (over 70 #) than slow-set pectins (50-70 İ» DB). Commercial low methoxyl (LM) pectins usually have a BE less than 50 >* LM pectins can gel with a low concentration of sugar (equal or less than 30 #) or without sugar, in the presence of polyvalent cations (Cs, Mg ). LM pectins are rapid-set pectins. Presently, LM pectins are produced from HM pectins by suitable de-esterif ication methods. Sunflower pectin is naturally occuring low-methoxyl pectin (22,28,57,64). Structural formula of D-galacturonic acid and a pectin molecule is shown in Fig 1.1. As Bishop (1955) pointed out, 0.5 # oxalate solution (0.25 % oxalic acid + 0.25 % amonium oxalate) can selectively isolate pectin from the other poly-saccharides present in the sunflower heads. This solution was also used, successfully, for the extraction of pectin from sunflower heads, by other workers (11,45,46,47,71,73).-VIII- In this study, sun dried, matured heads of VNIIMK-8931 variety was used as a raw material. Following the recommendation of Bishop, 0.5 # oxalate solution is used as the extractant(ll). Before the pectin extraction, sunflower heads were ground to 60 mesh and treated with hot water at 8 solid to solvent ratio of 1: 20 at 75°C for 15 mill, to remove low-molecular weight carbohydrates, organic acids, minerals and pigments* In order to determine the effectiveness of different exctractions under various conditions, ground sunflower heads were extracted with 0.5 ^ oxalate solution at a solid to solvent ratio of 1:20 or Is 25, at 70°, 80°, 90°C for 30» 60,90 or 120 m in. The extractions were done in a suitable size of glass vessel immersed in a temperature controlled water bath. The mixture is stirred continuously during extraction. At the end of each extraction conducted at the prodermined conditions, the filtrate is analyzed for the total amount of pectic substances. The extract is directly analyzed by the Carta zole method, without previous precipitation of the pectin (19,51,61). The experimental results are shown in Table 3*2. The results Indicate that, the higher the temperature and the longer the extraction time, the more pectic substances are extracted. Solvent to solid ratio is important. At a solid to solvent ratio of 1:25» satisfactory yields are obtained.. In a past study »viscosity measurements of apple pectin extracts were made to approximate pectin grade, since a close relationship was found between viscosity and 3elly quality. Further, Kerte s z (1951) suggested that viscosity measurements are useful in certain phases of pectin manufacture. Consequently viscosity measurements of the extracts were also determined by using a Heake Falling- tabulated in Fig 3.3. using a Heake Falling-Ball Viscometer at 25°C. The results are In the later stages of this study, pectins were precipitated from the extract by either acidified alcohol or by calcium chloride. Acidified alcohol was prepared by adding 40 ml of concentrated HC1 to a volume of 95 İ» alcohol to make one liter of a nal mixture. CaCO- yield per gram of sample-IX- is the indication of a better quality of the pectin, and the alcohol precipitates all the pectic substances in the extract irrespective of their molecular weight (33>50). In the light of this information, it is seen from Table 3.4 and 3.5 that the favorable extraction conditions are 90°G for 30 or 60 minutes. The CaCO- yield per gram of sample is higher when the solid to solvent ratio is 1:25 than when it is 1:20. For the preparation of larger quantities of pectin, 40 g. of the sample was extracted with 1000 ml. of 0.5 f oxalate solution at 70°, 80°, 90°C for 30, 60, 90 min. Pectins were precipitated with acidified alcohol as described previously. She resultant precipitated pectin was filtered and washed several times with 60 $> ethanol until the filtrate is free from 01 ions, Then the pectin is dried in an air-oven at 60°C. The degrees of esterification and the degrees of amide substitution, percent galecturonic acid and gel power of the pectin samples were analyzed following the procedure of the national Research Council (55). The results are shown in Table 3.6. According to these results, the degrees of amide substitution varies with the extraction temperature. Degrees of esterification and percent methoxyl content fall slightly as the extraction time or temperature increases, is a result, the amount of free carboxyl groups change. Degree of esterification and of amide substitution is in the order of 29 # and 1.6 1° at 70°c, 27 f> and 20 $ at 80°C and 26 # and 15 # at 90°C respectively. The amount of free carboxyl groups is then 68 # at 70°C, 51 % at 80°C, 58 %> at 90°c. The molecular weights of pectin samples were determined following the procedure of ChristensenC 14). In this method relative viscosities of dilute solutions (0.05-0.2 $) of the purified pectin in a 1 % sodium he xameta phosphate was measured. Then, the relative viscosities are converted to intrinsic viscosity which is related to the molecular weight in the following way. intrinsic viscosity « [u ] - KM-X- In this equation K is a constant, characteristic of the polymer and M is the molecular weight, Chris tensen uses Ka 4.75xlÖ5. The intrinsic viscosities and the molecular weights of the pectin samples are shown in Table 3.8. According to the results obtained, there is no marked time and temperature effect on the molecular weights. Generally, at a specific temperature, as the extraction time becomes longer, molecular weight decreases. Gels were prepared by the pectin samples obtained in this study, following the procedure of National Research Council (35). 1° Sag values of these gels together with the corresponding gel powers are shown in Table 3.8. As it is seen from this table, gels made with pectins extracted at 70°C or 90° for 30 or 60 min. have satisfactory gel powers. This is because gel forming ability of LM pectins depend not only on the molecular weight but on the chemical composition which shows DE, degree of amidation and the free carboxyl groups (30,40,42). With these results, the findings of &ewfelt and Worthington (1952) (73) was explained in terms of the changes in chemical composition of the pectins which is brought about during the exctraction. Shewfelt and Worthington» after studying the time and temperature effect on the gel power of pectins during the extraction with 0.5 ^ oxalate solution, have stated that `in general, but not invariably, favorable extraction conditions were provided at a temperature of 90°c for 60 min. ` ' As a result of this study, it is found that chemical composition of the sunflower pectin changes depending on the extraction time and temperature during the extraction with 0.5 $> oxalate solution, which in turn effects the gel forming ability of the pectin. It is also found that, we can not predict the gel forming ability of the sunflower pectin, simply measuring the viscosity of the extract as was suggested by the investigators, for the extraction of apple pectin.-XI- All the pectin extraction methods involve the same principal steps, irrespective of the kinds of raw material. These are: treatment of the raw material, solubilisation of the pectin by heating in acid solution, filtration of the extract, precipitation of the pectin in the exctract and finally drying and stardardizstion of the final product. -A flow diagram of the pectin production is shown in Pig 1.3. The successful extraction of pectin from any source depends on the quality of pectin in the raw material, the amount of pectin which can be extracted, the quality of extracted pectin and the concentration in the extract. The manufacturing conditions are chosen to give the maximum amount of standardised pectin at the lowest cost. Therefore, no attempt Is made to extract all the pectin present in the raw material, also, it is not aimed at to obtain the pectins of highest grade obtainable from the given raw material. The concentration of pectin in the extract is highly important. Extract should contain 0.6-1 # pectin depending upon the quality of pectin (29). Production of a more dilute extract is easier and the concentration of the dilute extract is technically feasible. However, the procedure is expensive. The volume of extract also affects the volume of alcohol required for the precipitation of pectin which in turn increases the further distillation costs. Hence, obtaining a suitable pectin extracts which could be used directly in subsequent processing becomes very important. However at these concentrations, the viscosity of pectin extracts is high. In order to have the maximum amount of extract easily, filtration of the extract should be done at high temperatures. In this study, a series of filtration experiment are carried out at different temperatures and under various pressure differences. The results of these expeciments are shown in Table 3.9.-Xll- According to the results of these experiments, filtration rate increases with increasing temperature. But, specific cake resistance is highly dependent on the filtration pressure, indicating the highly compressible character of the filter cake (17). The compressibility factor of the filter cake is calculated as 0.8. In a previous study, it was shown that the extraction of sunflower heads mixed with ground saps increases the filtration efficiency. Similarly in this study, the use of ground sunflower seed shells as a filter aid was tested. It was found that addition of sunflower seed shells to the extract at a rate of 0.15 # increases the filtration rate and decreases the specific cake resistance (Table 3.11). The flow sheet of the suggested pectin production plant is shown in Fig. 4.1.en_US
dc.languageTurkish
dc.language.isotr
dc.rightsinfo:eu-repo/semantics/embargoedAccess
dc.rightsAttribution 4.0 United Statestr_TR
dc.rights.urihttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
dc.subjectKimya Mühendisliğitr_TR
dc.subjectChemical Engineeringen_US
dc.titleAyçiçeği tablalarından pektin eldesine pektin kalitesini etkileyen faktörler ve konu ile ilgili teknolojik öneriler
dc.title.alternativeThe Factors effecting the quality of pectin in the production of sunflower head pectin and the evaluation of the related technological problems
dc.typedoctoralThesis
dc.date.updated2021-03-08
dc.contributor.departmentDiğer
dc.subject.ytmPectin
dc.subject.ytmSunflower
dc.subject.ytmProduction
dc.identifier.yokid2099
dc.publisher.instituteFen Bilimleri Enstitüsü
dc.publisher.universityİSTANBUL TEKNİK ÜNİVERSİTESİ
dc.identifier.thesisid2099
dc.description.pages107
dc.publisher.disciplineDiğer


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