Koruma ve kullanıcı katkısı tarihsel temeller ve günümüzdeki olanaklar

Abstract

ÖZET Tarihi mekânların kullanıcılarında kullandıkları mekânlara yönelik olarak oluşan yabancılaşma tarihi dokunun tahribini hızlandır maktadır. Bu yabancılaşmanın etkisini azaltmak için pek çok ülkede korumada kullanıcı katkısını sağlayacak koruma ilkeleri geliştirilmiştir. Toplumda koruma bilincini geliştirmekte ve koruma yasalarına işlerlik kazandırmakta çok etkili olan korumada kullanıcı katkısı ülkemizde ye terince tanınmamaktadır. Uygulayıcı ülkelerdeki başarının önemli etkenlerinden birini oluşturan ülke koşullarının göz önünde tutulduğu katılım modelleri de ülkemiz için henüz geliştirilmemiştir. Bu tezin temel amacı tarihi fiziksel dokunun hızla tahrib olduğu ülkemize katılımcı koruma ilkelerinin benimsendiği başarılı uygulama örneklerini tanıtmak ve bu doğrultuda kendi koşullarımıza yönelik veriler üretebilmektir. I.BöIüm'de korumada kullanıcı katkısının tarihsel evrimi incelenmiştir. Bu amaçla ilkin tarihsel süreç içinde merkezi otorite ile kullanıcıların fiziksel doku gelişimi ve bu dokunun korunmasına yönelik ilişkileri irdelenmiştir. II.Bölüm'de çağdaş koruma kavramlarının gelişmesiyle birlikte korumada kullanıcı katkısının süreç boyunca kurumlaşması sergilenmiştir. Bu amaçla kurumlaşma süreci boyunca çeşitli ülkelerdeki etkinlikler karşılaştırmalı olarak tanımlanmış, daha sonra bu tanımlardan elde edilen ortak veriler korumada kullanıcı katkısının temel ilkelerini belirtmekte kullanılmıştır. III.Bölüm'de ise kullanıcı katkısı ile korumanın ilk iki sistematik uygulaması niteliğindeki Bologna ve Pittsburgh ile ortak verileri olmakla birlikte yaklaşım açısından farklılıklar içeren Rotterdam/Bloemhof, Berlin/Kreuzberg ve New Orle ans/Lower Garden District modelleri ayrıntılı olarak incelenmiştir. II. Bölüm sonunda da ayrıca ele alınmış olan Türkiye'deki kullanıcı kat kısının durumuna yönelik araştırma, III. Bölüm sonunda ülkemizde ger çekleştirilmiş olan katılımcı koruma çalışmaları niteliğindeki Bursa/Kale Sokak ve Kuşadası/Camii Kebir Mahallesi örnekleri ile bütünleştirilmiştir. Sonuç bölümünde ise tezin tümünden elde edilen verilerin ülkemiz açısından değerlendirilmesi yapılmış, katılımcı korumanın ortak il keleri ile bütünleştirilerek ülkemizde bu yöntemin uygulanabilirliğini sağlayacak öneriler geliştirilmiştir.

IX SUMMARY PRESERVATION AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION HISTORICAL BASES AND RECENT POSSIBILITIES The destruction of historical buildings is accelerated by the alienation of their users towards their physical surroundings. To minimize the effect of this alienation and to ensure the approval of preservation principles by the majority of the public by involving them directly in preservation activities, many countries have developed participatory preservation principles. Public participation in preservation, which is very effective in turning preservation theory into practice, is quite unknown in our country. Development of special participatory principles in keeping on with local conditions is one of the main necesssities for the success of particapatory methods and has not yet been realized using a methodical approach. The main purpose of this study therefore, is to introduce to our country examples of successful particapatory preservation and to generate necessary data based on combining local needs with general principles of participation. Chapter I explaines the historical evolution of public participation in preservation. From the beginning of the urbanisation process there is always a conflict between the users and and the central authority concerning the development of man-made physical structures. In most Mesopotamian cultures and Ancient Egypt, the central authority, claiming divine rights and combining the religious and administrative centre, the temple with the palace, shaped the development of the physical environment autocratially, whereas in Anatolia and Ancient Greece the central authority gave the users more fredom to shape their settlements. The application of the grid plan of Hippodomos marks the end of this period in Ancient Greece and caused the establishment of a series of uniform cities, putting and end to user rights; a fact, which is also demonstrated by the occurance of urban Utopias. The dominance of the central authority reached its climax in antiquity during the Roman period, which also introduced systematised central preservation principles. Public participation again gained dominance during the Middle Ages in cities of both Islamic and Christian Europe, Participatory principles shaped urban development in the Islamic world in every dimension, the city itself, its quatters, streets and dwellings. The irregular shape of the city the Islamic world derives from users' freedom and not from the absence of an organisatory order mechinism as is often suggested by certain European scholars. There are no predetermined model cities in Islam, nor any urban Utopias prescribing model lives in a model environment. The autonomy of city quarters is another indication of users rights. Not only Muslims, but-x - also Christians and Jews were free to develop their own quarters and the quarters were represented before the central authoritiy by leaders elected by the inhabitants. In street and living unit dimensions the extension of the same participation concept is reflected in the freedom of shaping these units according to personal needs, as long as the consent of the other inhabitants of the street was given as demonstrated in the semi-private street element `fina`. On the other, hand, restriction of users rights can occur in cases of public benefit, one of which can be the restoration of neglected buildings. Especially in case of property belonging to charitable foundations, the maintanance of the building was often one of the conditions specified by the founder himself. Many of these conditions included the instituti on of a permanent restoration team, normally consisting of a steady architect-mimar, meremetci-restorer, caster of lead-üsrubi and a manii rüküş who was responsible for preventing the spoiling of the architectural integrity of the building. In cases this maintanance condition was not fulfilled, there are many occasion, where the court forced the trustees to do so. The endowments for certain charitable urban services founded by individuals are another dimension of public participation in Islam and build a link between the individuals and the central authority. European cities during the Middle Ages were also developed by participatory principles, as their irregular organic pattern indicates. Beginning from the 10 th. century onwards citizens began to obtain user rights officially. The particapatory attitude in city affairs was institutionalized in citizen corporations and guildes. With the establishment of monarchies the central authority began once again to dominate. One of the urban reflections of this development was the opening of `boulevards` to enable the access of armies. These spacious streets, referred to by Alberti and Palladio as `viae militares` caused the displacement of a great number of users against their will as the construction of monumental buildings to reach the `Grandeur` ideal of the baroque. Another institution restricting the rights of users in shaping the urban environment is the Catholic Church. Whereas one of the early critics against individual architectural decisions can be found by the Holy Augustin in 4/5 th. centuries, the most interesting result of this attitude is the so called `Law of the Indies established in the year of 1573 by the king of Castilia, Don Felipe in order to have built uniform `Christian cities to rescue the local Indians from their pagan rites` in America. In 1521 Cortez and his men razed many Aztec cities to the ground including the capital Tenochitlan to build cities according to the Royal Ordinances with a gridrion plan and central plaza, very similar to those having been built in Ancient Greece centries ago at the end of the users participation period. The central authorities in Europe took a number of decisions regarding the preservation of historical buildings, beginning from the renaissaince on, so that slowly the conscience about preservation began to develop. Preservation was in the beginning, the privilege of a restricted number of people; even scholars like Winckelmann in the 18 th. century had difficulties in carrying on their scientific research in archeological sites. With the establishment of the first citizen associations for preservation aims, especially in Britain such as in 1826 in York, in 1836 in Warwickshire and 1846 in Sidmouth, the public began to be included in the preservation process, which caused in the end led to the effect of the public participation concept in preservation.- XI - On the other hand, dating from the 19 th. century onward in most of the cities of the Islamic sphere the concept of public participation was lost due to the Europeaniazition. The imitative efforts of the central authorities aiming to resemble to European capitals led to the destruction of many city parts. The demolitions in istanbul and Izmir to create open boulevards and the demolition of whole quarters between Al Azbakiyah and Castle by the Khediv in 1840 in Cairo are typical examples of this development. In contrast to this, with the indrotuction of the Enlightment period in Europe the first theoretical efforts for public participation in urban affairs occured, which at first had no practical effect. In nearly all European cities the destruction of the historical fabric went on together with the displacement of great masses of users. In Paris, Haussmann and in Birmingham, Chamberlain are representing of the principle of dissolving unwanted social structures together with unwanted physical structures. This typical central behaviour of the 19 the. century was combined with very poor living conditions for the majority of the population in the cities. Especially from the beginning of 20 th. century onward the historical fabric, in which they were living was declared as the cause of this misery, creating another pretext for demolotions and replacements. This led to the first practical efforts for preservation with public participation motivated by reactions caused by these displacements. In Chapter II the process of the institutionalization of public participation in preservation is introduced, it can be dealt with three periods. The first period is characterized by the central authority's efforts to clear out both the historical fabric and its users as described above. This movement really accelerated during the efforts to renovote cities after the Second World War in Europe. Especially in Germany dating from the sixties this attitude is very common as it is in England although in England the 1946 `Town and Planing Act` includes an item concerning `participation`, though it only deals with the informing of the public of demolition steps as an initial important legal concept. In the U.S.A. the 1949 and 1954 `Housing Acts` cau sed great damage to historical districts near the central business are as of Philedelphia, Pittsburgh, Hartford, Boston, San Fransisco. As the proposed alternative social housing was not built a great number of families were left homeless, the majority of them black. The second period differs from the first to the extent that it aims to preserve the fabric but change the users. It is also in keeping with the new preservation concept of the monument together with the surrounding. During this period the users are declared to be the cause of the detonation of the historical structures in which they were living so that the replacement of users of socially better conditions was aimed. Especially in Germany in all the documents between 1 960-1 973 the prevention of the return of the original users to the restored historical districts is mentioned as an essential principle of the restoration. Paradoxically the finance for these luxurious restorations was drawn from social housing funds. At the same time, in certain small communities like Ladenburg in Rhine Valley the citizen association Ladenburg-Heimatbund succeeded in the election of their candidate as Mayor in 1965 and managed to apply one of the first public participation models in preservation. In France there are also early attempts of users protection, the Malraux legislation dated 1962 provides with its `secteur sauvagarde` concept- XII- help to the users of historical districts. Also in Italy during the same period there are special legislations for historical cities concerning the relationship of the users with the central city authorities concerning preservation efforts. These early attempts for participatory preservation are only typical of small cities whereas in large cities the attitude against public participation still dominated. Typical in this respect are in Germany, Berlin as the `window of the West` after its division, London with its `slum clearence programs` for the East End and southern districts especially in Italy Venice with the gentrification efforts of the municipality for the sake of tourism, so that all other sectors in the city disappeared. During the third period, beginning from the sixties onwards the importance of users in preservation has become generally accepted. By comparing different countries attitudes the U.S.A. stands out with its efforts to revitalize the emptied commercial city centres due to the Movement into suburbs. To achieve this the American National Trust developed a projet called `Main Street`, in which the Trust provides the educational help and organizes the restoration process, which is carried out by the citizens themselves. In addition legal measurments such on the `Local District Zoning Ordinance` provide participatory principles. Another movement towards users participation in preservation in the U.S.A. was created by the `Community Development` projects, which aims at the rehabilitation of the physical structure together with the social structure. In Germany the legislation `Stâdtebauförderungsgesetz` of 1971 and the paragraph of the 1 976-77 `Bundesbaugesetz` are legal efforts, at participation. In Austria user funds for restoration are provided by the `Mietrechtgesetz` legislation of 1982 and `Wohnungssanierung- sgesetz` of 1984.A typical application of this legislation is the Spittelberg restoration project in Vienna. In the Netherlands single municipalities developed participation principles such as the municipalities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Dokkum and several others caused by great public demand. In the Netherlands grants for users are/also widely developed. The public conscinces in this country is demonstrated by the existence of more than `action groups`, citizens organisations for particapatory preservation. In Britain, England and Scotland show great differences. Whereas in England the `Housing Act` canalized all the financial help to house owners in the seventies, so that especially in London great financial speculation with regard to housing stock again displaced many users. As a consequence of user reactions, in the middle of the seventies. GIA-` General Improvement Areas` were developed, followed CA `Conservation Areas` and HAA `Housing Action Areas` which also had a partial success. But from the eighties onward there has been and again a step back due to the cutting of govermental funds. Scotland is quite different. Here the HAA concept of the 1974 Housing Act was developed into in a participatory base so that the CBHA-Community Based Housing Associations, of which users become members until the restoration of their dwellings are completed carried out the rehabilitation of vast areas in several Scottish cities, especially in Glasgow Another country with succesful public participation applications is Italy with its special system of district councils. There is also some slow progress in some Islamic countries concerning users participation like Sidi Bou Said and Hafsia projects in Tunisia and the Darb Qirmiz project in Egypt.- XIII - This comparision of several countries is followed by the classification of concepts in common derived from these examples. The topics covered are legal developments, economical developments and technical developments. The chapter ends with the description of the situation of users in Turkey, where the first legal measurment for the protection of civil heritage is the legislation Nr.1710 of the year 1973, though the protection of ancient Greek and Roman monuments was already realzied nearly one century ago by the `Asar-i Atika Nizamnamesi` dated 1869. There are certain legislations today, which could form a base for public participation such as item 15 of the legislation Nr.1710 providing certain funds for users aiming restoration. Chapter III deals with practical examples of public participation in preservation. In the first part of the chapter, two early examples are given, namely Bologna and Pittsburgh, the first having been manipulated from the top by central authority in person of the municipality, whereas the second has been came about as the consequence of the public demand from the bottom. These examples are followed by three recent examples characterizing different approaches to the subject: Rotterdam/Bloemhof characterized by users influence, Berlin/Kruezberg characterized by local authority influence and New Orleans/Lower Garden District characterized by the influence of private enterprise. The chapter closes with two examples from Turkey: Bursa/Kale Street and Kuşadası/Camii Kebir Quarter. All examples are examined in categories of the district development, stuructural features of the district the evolution of participatory preservation in the district, organisation, finance and technical data. Finally in the concluding chapter, first the effect of public participation in preservation is discussed. The first consequence is the preservation of single monuments together with their surroundings The artifcially created or aimed to be created, but failed surroundings are a great thre at for single monuments of great importance, for the conditions of the market can change suddenly and the proposed gentrification may not be realized, leaving the empty district in danger of becoming a slum, which also damages single monuments as many examples in several countries prove. Secondly, the best method to create a preservation concience in the public is possible by involving the public into the preservation process. A third positive consequence of public participation in preservation is the increase of housing stock, which can also prevent the slum development to a certain extent. The proposed application methods are the introduction of detailed participatory principles into our legal system and to make the existing participation legislations functional as well improvement of organisational, economical an technical structures.