Birinci Meclis Döneminde siyasal rejim ve yürütme erki 1920-1923

Abstract

Genel olarak Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi'nin Birinci Dönemi'ni ele alan bu çalışma, özünde 1920-1923 yılları arasında TBMM Hükümeti'ni konu edinmiştir. Çünkü Birinci Meclis dönemi siyasi, tarihi ve hukuki olarak incelenmiştir; ancak TBMM Hükümeti hakkında çok az sayıda çalışma vardır. Özellikle TBMM Hükümeti'nin aldığı ve uyguladığı kararlar derli toplu olarak hiç incelenmemiştir. Bu çalışmada ilk olarak, TBMM'nin kuruluşu ve TBMM Hükümeti'nin nasıl ortaya çıktığı açıklanmıştır. İcra Vekilleri Heyeti denilen on bir kişilik kurulun, meclis üstünlüğü ve kuvvetler birliği ilkelerini benimseyen TBMM'nin hukuki ilişkisi açıklanmıştır. Bu hukuki ilişkideki değişikler ele alınmıştır. Ardından, teze özgünlüğünü kazandıran bölüme geçilmiştir. Bu bölümde, İcra Vekilleri Heyeti'nin 1920-1923 yılları arasında çıkardığı kararnameler, nizamnameler ve talimatnameler konularına göre incelenmiştir. Böylelikle, Birinci Dönem Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Hükümeti'nin, hangi anayasal nitelikteki kaynaklara dayanarak, nasıl bir siyasi ve hukuki mücadeleden geçtiği açıklanmıştır. Bu mücadele sürecinde ve sonucunda TBMM adına yürütme gücünü kullanan İcra Vekilleri Heyeti'nin hangi ihtiyaçlara ne gibi çözümler bulduğu tespit edilmiştir. Yeni bir devletin kurucusu, aynı zamanda kurtuluşu da gerçekleştiren Birinci Dönem TBMM Hükümeti'nin, kamu hukuku açısından değerlendirmesi yapılmıştır. TBMM nasıl bir siyasal düzlemde kurulmuştur? 23 Nisan 1920'de Meclis'in kuruluşundan hemen sonra, 24 Nisan 1920'de, Mustafa Kemal Paşa hükümet kurulması için Meclis'e bir önerge sunmuştur. Bu önergede, önce ülkenin içinde bulunduğu siyasal koşullar tespit edilmiştir. Bu koşullardan kurtulabilmenin koşulu, hükümet oluşturmak olarak açıklanmıştır. Hükümet kurulmazsa TBMM amacına ulaşamayacaktır. Son Osmanlı Meclisi Mebusanı'nın kapatılmasından sonra bütün Anadolu'ya yayılan, yerel ve bölgesel kongrelerde belirlenen amaca ulaşılamayacaktır. En son tek merkeze, TBMM'ye taşınan kurtuluş amacıgerçekleşemeyecektir. Türk Kamu Hukuku'nun temelini atan, egemenliğin kaynağınıdeğiştirerek o döneme kadarki anayasal sistemi değiştiren bu önergede şu esaslar yer almıştır: . Hükümet kurmak zorunludur. . Hilafet ve saltanat makamı her türlü dış etkilerden kurtarılmalıdır. Daha sonra bu makamlar, Meclisin belirleyeceği yasalar çerçevesinde yerini almalıdır. . Meclis, sadece denetleyen bir yasama organı olarak kalmamalıdır. Bütün milli işlere doğrudan doğruya bizzat el koymalıdır. . Yürütme işleri için meclisin kendi içinden seçeceği vekiller görevlendirilmelidir. Meclise karşı vekillerin her biri ayrı ayrı ve birlikte sorumlu olmalıdır. Yasama ve yürütme TBMM'de toplanmıştır. Peki, yargı yetkisi? Yargı yetkisi de TBMM'nindir. Asker kaçaklarını yargılamak için kurulan İstiklal Mahkemeleri, Meclis içinden seçilen heyetler halinde çalışmıştır. Meclis, af konusunda kendisini yetkili görmüştür. Özellikle milletvekilleri ile ilgili iddialarda yargılama kurullarıoluşturmuştur. Konumuz açısından TBMM Hükümeti'nin yargısal işlemleri de önemlidir. Örneğin, Sivas'ta bir temyiz mahkemesi kurulmuştur. Çalışmanın özünü oluşturan TBMM Hükümeti'nin kamu hukuku açısından önemli görülen kararlarını anmak bu özet açısından en önemli kısım olacaktır. TBMM Hükümeti'nin aldığı ilk kararlar, kendi meşruiyetini ve güvenliğini sağlamaya yöneliktir. Meşruiyet ve güvenlik sağlandıktan sonraki düzenlemelerin konusu çok çeşitlidir. Adli, askeri, idari düzenlemeler başta olmak üzere eğitim, sağlık ve ekonomi alanlarında da birçok karar alınmıştır. Öncelikle İstanbul Hükümeti'nin egemenliğini bertaraf edecek adımlar atılmıştır. Aynı zamanda güvenlikle ilgili kararlar da verilmiştir. Bu doğrultuda, alınan ilk karar İstanbul Hükümeti ile her türlü haberleşmenin yasaklanmasına ilişkindir. Bu kararla, İstanbul'dan gelen resmi yazıların ve yayınların iade edilmesi emredilmiştir. Bu nedenle de telgraf ve telefon haberleşmesi ve mektuplar üzerinde sıkı denetim uygulanmıştır. Buna uymayanlar hakkında vatana ihanet suçlamasıyla soruşturma başlatılacağı uyarısında bulunulmuştur. Her ilde haberleşme sansür merkezleri oluşturulmuştur. Haberleşme dili sadece olarak sadece Türkçe kabul edilmiştir. Yabancı dilde haberleşme ise sadece Fransızca kabul edilmiştir; ancak bu da istisnai hallerde uygulanabilecektir. Bu denetimin tek istisnası Meclis'e ait postalar olmuştur. Casusluk faaliyetlerini engellemek için şifreli haberleşme yapılmasına karar verilmiştir. Ancak bu şifreler, sadece yetkili kişilere verilmiştir. İlk kararlardan biri de güvenliğin sağlanması için genel seferberliğin devam ettiği hakkında karardır. Bu karar, olağanüstü bir dönemin gerekli kıldığı bir karardır. Bu nedenle, birçok yerde İstiklal Mahkemeleri kurulmuş ve sıkıyönetim ilan edilmiştir. Özellikle kamu düzeninin ciddi bir şekilde sarsıldığı yerlerde, sıkıyönetim uygulaması uzun süre devam etmiştir. Bu dönemde çıkan başkaldırılar, bu türden bir uygulamayı zorunlu kılmıştır. İşgal altında kalan yerlerle ilgili birçok düzenlemeye gerek duyulmuştur. Bu yerlerde görülmekte olan davalara ait dosyalarla ilgili kararlar verilmiştir. Yine işgal altındaki bölgelerden -özellikle İstanbul ve İzmir'den- gelen memurların hangi koşullarla, nerede görevlendirileceği düzenlenmiştir. İşgal nedeniyle oluşan maddi zararlara ilişkin kararlar da verilmiştir. TBMM, kuruluşundan sonra düzenli ordu oluşturmak istemiştir. Düzenli ordu kurulana kadar işgallere karşı direniş temel itibariyle, Müdafaa-i Hukuk örgütleri ve onun askeri gücü olan Kuvayı Milliye tarafından gerçekleştirilmişti. Kuvayı Milliye esas itibariyle, eşraf tarafından maddi olarak desteklenen bir gerilla gücüydü. Bunlar içinde bazı kuvvetler sayıca dikkat çekecek kadar önemliydi. Bu birlikler milli amaca yönelik ciddi yararlıklar göstermekteydiler; ancak zaman zaman hukuk dışı fiili durumlar yaratmaktan da çekinmiyorlardı. Hatta ilerleyen zamanlarda KuvayıMilliye'nin bazı tutumları açıkça keyfiliğe kadar vardırılmıştı. xxiv Bunun üzerine TBMM Hükümeti, Kuvayı Milliye üyelerinin işledikleri suçlarla ilgili son derecede önemli bir kararname yayınladı. Buna göre KuvayıMilliye güçleri düzenli ordu mensubu olmasalar bile asker gibi muamele göreceklerdi. Suç işlemeleri halinde askeri mahkemelerde yargılanacaklardı. Zaten bir süre sonra, Hükümet, Kuvayı Milliye birliklerini düzenli orduya bağlama kararıverecekti. Bunun dışında kalan silahlı güçlerin işlemiş olduğu suçlar ise olağan mahkemelerin yetkisi alanında olacaktı. Önemli bir karar da tehcir suçlarına ilişkindir. Osmanlı Hükümeti, İtilaf Devletleri'ne tehcir suçlularını yargılama ve cezalandırma taahhüdünde bulunmuştu. Osmanlı Devleti, bu tutumun barış masasında Osmanlı Hükümeti'ne iyi muamele edilmesine olanak sağlayacağını tahmin etmekteydi. Bu amaçla adil yargılama yapılmadan suçlananlar olmuştu. TBMM Hükümeti, suçlulukları ispatlanmamışsanıkların tehcir yargılamalarının tutuksuz devamına karar vermiştir. Başka bir kararla, bazı hükümlülerin cezalarını ziraat işlerinde çalışarak çekmeleri düzenlenmiştir. Asker ihtiyacından dolayı da askerliğini yapmamışolanların cezaları ertelenmiştir. Bir başka karar da Zonguldak kömür madeninde çalışan işçilerin askerlik görevlerinin ertelenmesi hakkında alınmıştır. Hatta öğretmenlerin askerlik görevlerinin ertelenmesi de dönemin olağanüstülüğüne rağmen eğitime verilen önemi göstermektedir. Alınan birçok kararla, adli bürokrasi de her anlamda yeniden düzenlenmiştir. Yargıç ve savcıların atanmaları, meslekte yükselmeleri Ankara Hükümeti Adliye Vekâleti tarafından yeniden düzenlenmiştir. Adliye memurlarının kadrosunun atanma ve özlük hakları da ayrıca düzenlenmiştir. Özellikle seçimleriyle ilgili nizamnameler çıkarılmıştır. Avukatlık mesleği ile ilgili düzenlemeler de yapılmıştır. Kimlerin, hangi koşullarla dava vekâleti ve ruhsat alabilecekleri düzenlenmiştir. Resmi Gazete çıkarılması kararı ile TBMM tarafından çıkarılan bütün kanunların, kararların ilan edilmesi sağlanmıştır. TBMM egemenliğini ilan eden ve eski rejimin kalıntılarını ortadan kaldıran kararlar da verilmiştir. Örneğin, arazi senetlerine, pasaportlara `TBMM Hükümeti` ibaresinin yazılması ve saltanat ibarelerinin kaldırılması hakkında kararlar verilmiştir. Kurtuluş Savaşı başarıya ulaşınca, savaşa katılanlara İstiklal Madalyasıverilmesi kararlaştırılmıştır. Hatta bu madalyanın iki yüzünde nasıl bir resim olacağıda karara bağlanmıştır. Sağlıkla ilgili olarak, bulaşıcı hastalıkların önlenmesi için bir düzenleme yapılmıştır. Sıhhiye Vekâleti'ne bağlı laboratuarlarca alınacak ücret ve bedeller belirlenmiştir. Çalışma yaşamıyla ilgili olarak da kararlar verilmiştir. Öğle tatili uygulamasıbuna örnektir. Memurların çalışma saatleri de düzenlenmiştir. Bütün bu araştırmanın sonucu olarak varılabilecek en kesin yargı, Birinci Dönem Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi'nin, Türk Kamu Hukuku'nun temelini oluşturduğudur. Bir yandan kurtuluş mücadelesi verilirken bir yandan da başta anayasal olmak üzere hukuki düzenlemelerle yeni bir devlet yaratılmıştır. TBMM xxv Hükümeti, bu yeni devletin lokomotifi görevini görmüştür. Bu dönemin en önemli özelliği ise hukuka sıkı sıkıya bağlı bir yönetim anlayışının sergilenmesidir. TBMM ve Hükümeti'nin bunu başarabilmesinin nedeni ise TBMM'nin haklı mücadelesinin ona yüklediği meşru görevdir

Although this study generally addresses the First Term of The Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNAT), it essentially discusses the GNAT government between the years 1920 – 1923. The First Parliament has been analyzed in terms of political, historical and judiciary aspects but there are very few works regarding the GNAT Government. Especially the decisions made and applied by the GNAT Government have never been examined thoroughly. In this study, first, the foundation of GNAT and how the GNAT Government emerged is explained. The legal relationships of the Cabinet Council composed of eleven members, legislative supremacy and unity of power principles embraced by the GNAT are explained. The differences in these legal relationships are addressed. In this section, the decrees, regulations and ordinances that the Cabinet Council passed between 1920 and 1923 have been examined according to their topics. Hence, what kind of legal and political struggle the Government of the First Term of The Grand National Assembly of Turkey has been through, and which sources of constitutional quality these were based on are explained. The needs that were addressed and the solutions they had found for them by the Cabinet Council using executive power in GNAT's name during and at the end of this struggle are ascertained. As the founder of a new state and also the executer of liberation, GNAT's First Term Government is evaluated in terms of public law. What kind of political platform was the GNAT established on? On April 24th 1920, right after the Parliament was established on April 23rd 1920; Mustafa Kemal Pasha made a motion to the Parliament for a government to be formed. In this motion, first, the political conditions that the country was in were determined. The formation of a new government was explained as the solution to get rid of these conditions. If the government is not formed, the GNAT will not realize its aim. Goals and aims determined in local and regional conferences spread all over Anatolia after the dissolution of the First Turkish Parliament, will also not be realized. Finally the aim of liberalization carried to a single center – the GNAT – will not be realized. This motion that has laid the foundations of Turkish Public Law, and by changing the source of sovereignty, has changed the constitutional system up until that period, included these principles: . Forming a government is obligatory. . The Caliphate and Sultanate should be saved form all kinds of external effects. Later on, these authorities should be repositioned according to the laws that the Parliament will determine. . The Parliament should not remain only as the legislature. It should clamp down on all national things directly by itself. . For executive duties, members within the Parliament should be chosen and appointed. Members should be responsible for the Parliament individually and as a whole. . The Speaker should represent the Parliament and, at the same time, preside at the executive board that will be formed. The Speaker should also be responsible to the Parliament as the other executive board members. . Even if temporarily, there mustn't be a head of state. Also an institution such as a Sultanate governorship (delegacy) mustn't be created. . GNAT has been equipped with extraordinary powers representing the national will. It has gathered all power within itself and has seized the fate of the nation. There is no power greater than the GNAT. This motion, despite polemics in the Parliament, was accepted. Hence, starting with the 1921 Constitution, the principles that have reflected on all actions and proceedings of the Parliament were brought to life; these were the principles of national sovereignty, legislative supremacy and unity of power. As a result of discussions regarding the forming of a government and its shape, decree number 5 `Concerning the Organization of Executive Force` was made. First, a temporary executive council was created. Afterwards, a Cabinet Council was formed by passing of law number 3. According to this, members were to be elected from within the Parliament by the Parliament. If there be a dispute between these deputations, the problem will be solved by the GNAT. Members will be responsible for the Parliament individually and as a whole. However, this approach has caused dispute amongst the members. Changes in the deputations came up quite often. This is why Law number 47 has been enacted. With this law, the members will be elected by the Parliament from those that the Speaker has nominated. However, opposing members have always objected to this approach. In 1922 Law number 244 was accepted. Hence, the Parliament directly electing the members approach was adopted once again. An important step was taken by the acceptance of the 1921 Constitution. First, the political regime was changed radically. The source of sovereignty was changed. Sovereignty was taken from the Ottoman decent and given to the nation without any reservations or limitations. People's autonomy principle was adopted. Executive and legislative powers rest in the GNAT and founding of a new state was expressed. This new state is named the State of Turkey. It was arranged that the State of Turkey was to be operated by the GNAT government. It was stated in the Constitution that the government was made of members who acted under the command of the Parliament. Also one important aspect of this constitution was that it widely covered local governments. The principle of populism, rooting back to the state's founding philosophy, has formed the bases of this constitution. Principles of national sovereignty and legislative supremacy have been regulated at a constitutional level. Regulations regarding jurisdiction and fundamental rights and freedoms were not included in the constitution. With this characteristic, it's a framework constitution. The Ottoman Basic Law was applied in these topics that the constitution did not cover. The Ottoman Basic Law was not formally abolished. However the GNAT has seen itself as a constituent assembly. This is why it has reestablished its constitutional order without being subjected to anything. In this regard, it would be good to touch upon political regime. Parliamentary government regime is the polity in which the legislative and executive powers are united in one parliament. This regime is also known as conventional regime. First applied in France, this regime was thought of as a form of constitutional democratic xvi government and was projected in the 1793 French Constitution. The bases of this regime are rooted in Rousseau's indivisibility of national sovereignty principle. The conventional regime is mostly applied in states of emergency. The regime that the 1921 constitution adopted is a parliamentary government regime. It has stated in its second clause that the legislative and executive powers were gathered in the GNAT. Legally, there isn't an independent or separate judiciary. There are hundreds of members in the Parliament and since executive function cannot be done with hundreds of people, the Assembly elects a committee. This committee works in its name and under its command. This regime was accepted since the National War of Independence had to continue. On the one hand the Independence War was fought, and on the other, a new system was established over the old system. However, as generally seen in parliamentary governments, derivations from the parliamentary government system occurred in the GNAT as well. The Cabinet Council attained the political majority in the Assembly. Hence they attained the leadership and authority as well. Gradually, those who work in coordination became deputies. The Parliament was able to monitor the executions by activating the members' political responsibilities. The individual and common responsibilities of execution were accepted. This is also a characteristic specific to parliamentary regimes. In practice, the Cabinet Council proposed more laws than the legislative organ. The Cabinet Council, either individually or together, asked the Assembly for votes of confidence. Not having a head of state as defined in parliamentary regimes is also a characteristic special to this period. An office for a head of state was not established because the sultanate reserved its authority. Because the members constituting the GNAT also included those who were pro-sultanate. They thought that the old regime would continue after the independence. They thought that the GNAT was temporary. This approach was adopted when the National War of Independence was being fought so that the struggle is not divided. However, the powers exercised by a head of state were exercised by the Speaker. The Speaker was given the authority to sign on behalf of the Assembly. Hence the Speaker of GNAT was given the authority to represent the state like a head of state. The Speaker was also given the authority to approve the decisions made by the execution. This feature is also special to parliamentary regimes. It has been accepted that the Speaker is the natural president of the members. On April 14th 1923, in accordance with decree number 384, it's been accepted that the head of the Cabinet Council was a mediator between the members and the Assembly. The head was placed in a central position which also made him the consultant of the Cabinet Council. The head will carry out the duties with the members as a whole and be responsible together. This joined responsibility and the head being in a central position is a drift to the cabinet system. Here it's necessary to briefly mention the inspection of the government by the Parliament. A joined responsibility for the execution was made; separate from the parliamentary government system. Many times the government asked for vote of confidence together. The Parliament established its legislative supremacy by going to the responsibilities of the members one by one and as a whole. This inspection was xvii made by using inspection mechanisms such as question, interpellation and parliamentary investigations seen in parliamentary regimes. Some members who couldn't obtain a vote of confidence following an interpellation were removed from membership. Some members resigned from the Assembly even though they obtained a vote of confidence. The GNAT has used the methods for inspecting the execution in a strict manner. The legislative and executive powers were vested in the GNAT. How about jurisdiction? The judiciary power also belongs to the GNAT. Independence Courts, established to judge the deserters in the military, worked as committees chosen from the Assembly. The assembly authorized itself regarding amnesty. Judgment rules were determined especially for the claims made against the delegates. In regard to our topic, judiciary operations of the GNAT Government are also important. For example, a court of appeal was established in Sivas. The GNAT Government, which is the essence of this study, has made decisions that are considered significant regarding public law; and mentioning these will be the most important part in regard to this summary. The first decisions made by the GNAT Government were those regarding its own legitimacy and safety. The regulations made after legitimacy and safety were provided are various. Judicial, martial and executive regulations were made along with decisions regarding areas of education, health and economy. Firstly, steps to rule out the Government of Istanbul were taken. At the same time decisions about safety were made. In this regard, the first decision was for all communication to be banned with the Government of Istanbul. With this decision all formal letters and publications coming from Istanbul were ordered to be sent back. This is why tight control was applied to telegraph and telephone communications along with letter correspondences. A warning was issued stating that those who do not abide by this will be charged with treason. Communication censorship stations were formulated in each city. Turkish was accepted as the only language of communication. French was accepted as the only foreign language of communication and could only be used in exceptional situations. The only exception to this inspection was the mailings of the Parliament. To avoid espionage, a decision was made to use communicate cryptically. However these encryptions were only given to the authorities. One of the first decisions was that general mobilization continues for security to be ensured. This decision is a decision that the state of emergency necessitates. This is why in a lot of places Independence Courts were established and martial law was proclaimed. Especially in places where public policy was seriously affected, martial law was implemented for a long time. The uprisings that happened at this time made this implementation mandatory. Many regulations were needed in areas that were occupied. Decisions were made regarding the case files of pending actions in these areas. Decisions were made about the duty conditions and places of the officials coming from occupied areas – especially Istanbul and Izmir. Decisions were also made about the material damage caused by the occupancy. The GNAT wanted to form a regular army after its establishment. Until the regular army was formed, resistance to the occupancies was basically done by Countrywide Resistance organizations and its military power Nationalist Forces. For the most part, the Nationalist Forces was a partisan power financially supported by the notables. Within them, some were very important in number. These forces were demonstrating great usefulness in line with national aim; however, from time to time they wouldn't hesitate to display unlawful acts as well. Moreover in the times that follow, some of the actions of the Forces were totally arbitrary. So, the GNAT Government issued an important decree regarding the crimes committed by the members of the Nationalist Forces. According to that, even though the Nationalist Forces were not members of the regular army, they were to be treated like soldiers. If they were to commit a crime, they would be judged in military courts. In any case, the Government would later make the decision to tie the Nationalist Forces to the regular army. Any other crimes committed by the armed forces were under the jurisdiction of normal courts. Another important decision is about deportation crimes. The Ottoman Government made a commitment to Allied Powers regarding the judgment and punishment of deportation criminals. The Ottoman Empire thought that this manner would make way for the Ottoman Government to be treated nicely at the peace table. Some people were condemned without a fair trial for this reason. The GNAT Government decided to continue trial without arrest for those accused of deportation but not proven guilty. With another decision, it was regulated that some convicts can serve their sentence by working in agricultural jobs. Convicts who hadn't done their military services had their sentences postponed because there was a need for soldiers. Another decision was made regarding the coal mine workers in Zonguldak and postponing their military services. Moreover, postponing the military services of teachers shows us the importance given to education even in such extraordinary times. With very decision made, judiciary bureaucracy was regulated by wall means. Induction and progress of judges and law officials were regulated by the Government of Ankara's Ministry of Justice. Court officers staff inductions and personal rights were also regulated. Bylaws, especially, about their elections were passed. Regulations about the bar have also been made. The conditions and requirements of attaining an attorney license and warrant of attorney were regulated. By deciding on publishing an official gazette, all laws and decisions made by the GNAT were announced. The GNAT has also made decisions declaring its own sovereignty and ridding itself of leftovers from its old regimes. For example, a decision was made to inscribe `GNTAT Government` on all passports and land deeds and remove all Sultanate inscriptions. Once the War of Independence was succeeded, war of independence medal was to be given to those who fought in the war. Even the kind of picture that would be on both sides of the medal was decided on. xix Regarding health, a regulation to prevent contagious diseases was made. The wages and payoffs for laboratories connected with the ministry of health were determined. Regulations were also made regarding work life. Lunch break is an example for this. Officer's work hours have been regulated as well. The definitive judgment to be reached at the end of this research is that the First Term of The Grand National Assembly of Turkey has formed the basis of Turkish Public Law. While fighting the war of independence on one hand, a new nation was founded on the other with constitutional and legal regulations. The GNAT has acted like the engine of this nation. The most essential characteristic of this period is that it displays a manner of rule so deeply attached to justice. The GNAT and its Government were able to achieve this because of the legitimate duty that the righteous struggle of the GNAT has laid upon itself.